Actions and Effects

Raymond-Hamet has investigated (a) dihydrocinchonidine, (b) cinchonidine, (c) cinchonamine and (d) aricine, especially as regards sym-pathicolytic action and effect on blood pressme. 

Pharmacodynamics deals with the drag s action and effect within the body. After administration, most dra enter the systemic circulation and expose almost all body tissues to possible effects of the drug. All dra produce more than one effect in the body. The primary effect of a drag is the desired or therapeutic effect. Secondary effects are all other effects, whether desirable or undesirable, produced by the drag. 

Most pancreatic enzyme supplements are enteric coated to release enzymes in the alkaline environment of the intestine this minimizes enzyme destruction in the stomach. Enteric-coated pancreatic enzyme supplements require fewer daily dosage units, but delivery of the drug to the site of action and effectiveness may be delayed by gastric emptying time.41... 

In addition, local usages can also directly refer to attributes or operations on their container.18 This makes it simple to write localized specifications of actions and effects, as discussed in Section 3.9.4. 

Section 4.1 provides an overview of the design of object collaborations. Section 4.2 begins with examples of object interactions to show that many variations in interaction protocols achieve the same net effect and so motivate the need for abstract actions. Section 4.3 introduces use cases and relates them to actions and refinement. Section 4.4 explains how actions and effects are related to abstract actions. Section 4.5 describes concurrency between actions and explains how to specify these constraints. 

The uses relationship between use cases is meant to let use cases share existing use cases for some parts that are common. There is, however, a conflict between the often-stated goal of having a use case correspond to a user task and the need to factor common parts across use cases. This leads to some confusion and variations in interpretation even among use case consultants. Catalysis provides actions and effects as the basis for this sharing using another use case means that you use its effect or quote the action itself. 

Pattern 15.9, Using State Charts in System Type Models Building state charts of specification types is a useful cross check for completeness and uncovers missing cases of actions and effects. 

Besides all actions that directly involve the system, also show actions between the external actors if they are relevant to the collaboration. If there are relevant actions even further removed from the system, either show actors and actions one level further out, or model them as effects (Section 4.4, Actions and Effects, on page 198) on the external actors already included. 

Building statecharts to find actions and effects and overlooked cases. 

Factoring common postconditions is done routinely in Z using schema composition. Our separation of actions and effects is meant to distinguish these convenience functions from the actual operations that must be supported. We allow gray-box specifications, in which certain aspects of the internal behavior, such as call sequences, can be exposed as a part of the specs. In the 00 world, related work was done by Helm et al. [Helm90]. 

They provide evaluation of actions and effects on intact animal and organ/tissue interactions. 

Studies with BZ did not cease in 1964, although the Dork project was our last major BZ experiment, since we believed we had completed the evaluations considered necessary to characterize its actions and effectiveness under various conditions. 

The sites of action and effects of ozone and other photochemical oxidants are described in Chapters 8 and 9. Recent work with primates has suggested that ozone is absorbed along the entire respiratory tract, penetrates more into the peripheral nonciliated airways, and causes more lesions in the respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts as the inhaled ozone concentration increases from 0.2 to 0.8 ppm. The most common and most severe tissue damage was observed in the respiratory bronchioles. The ciliated cells in the terminal bronchioles and the Type 1 cells in the epithelial layer of the proximal alveoli of rats were the... 

Buspirone (Buspar). The first nonsedating, nonbenzodiazepine specifically introduced as an anxiolytic, buspirone is FDA approved for the treatment of GAD. This medication acts as a partial agonist at the postsynaptic serotonin (5HT)-1A receptor. Like the antidepressants, buspirone has a delayed onset of action and effectively relieves the intrapsychic symptoms of GAD. Devoid of the muscle-relaxing properties of benzodiazepines, buspirone does not as effectively relieve the physical symptoms of GAD. Buspirone is not effective in the treatment of depression. Furthermore, its utility for the treatment of anxiety disorders other than GAD appears to be limited. 

The action of a hormone is defined as the primary effect on a cell, usually the binding of the hormone to a specific receptor and the resultant interaction between the hormone-receptor complex and an effector system within the cell. The effect of a hormone is an experimental observation that is made either in vitro or in vivo it can be molecular, biochemical or physiological but, when a sufficient number of effects are established, a relationship between the action and effects can be drawn. This can best be described as a pyramid (Figure 12.2). The. function of a hormone is an... 

Figure 12.13 Action and effects of glucagon. Glucagon binds to its receptor on the plasma membrane of the liver which activates adenyl cyclase. The resultant cyclic AMP activates protein kinase which results in phosphorylation and activation of ...

Yuan CS. (2007) Methylnaltrexone mechanisms of action and effects on opioid bowel dysfunction and other opioid adverse effects. Ann Pharmacother 41 984-993. 

Treatment Various drugs are available that have different mechanisms of action and effects on LDL (cholesterol) and VLDL (triglycerides) (A). Their use is indicated in the therapy of primary hyperlipoproteinemias. In secondary hyperlipoproteinemias, the immediate goal should be to lower lipoprotein levels by dietary restriction, treatment of the primary disease, or both. 

Pharmacology These agents are synthetic adrenocortical steroids with basic glucocorticoid actions and effects. Glucocorticoids may decrease number and activity of inflammatory cells, enhance effect of beta-adrenergic drugs on cyclic AMP production, inhibit bronchoconstrictor mechanisms, or produce direct smooth muscle relaxation. Inhaler use provides effective local steroid activity with minimal systemic effect. 

Benzodiazepines act throughout the CNS. Proposed relationships between site of action and effect include the following spinal cord (muscle relaxation), brain stem (anticonvulsant effects), brain stem reticular formation (sedative effects), cerebellum (ataxia), and limbic and cortical areas (anxiolytic effects). Action outside the CNS is limited to coronary vasodilation with intravenous (IV) administration and neuromuscular blockade with very high doses of BZs. 

Executive functions can be sub-classified into volition, planning, purposive action and effective performance. Volition, this most subtle and central realm of human activity (Deutsch Lezak, 1995, p.651), is not usually assessed in drug experiments. Typical tests to assess planning are mazes of different complexity and brain teasers such as the Tower of London or Hanoi In drug experiments with healthy volunteers, purposive action and effective performance are usually measured by means of the methods listed in Tables 3.1 and 3.3. 

Minzenberg MJ, Carter CS Modafinil A review of neurochemical actions and effects on cognition. Neuropsychopharmacol 2008 33 1477. [PMID 17712350]... 

Class Mechanism of Action and Effects Indications Pharmacokinetics, Toxicities, Interactions... 

Before discussing the actions and effects of specific drugs and poisons, we have to appreciate the physical and chemical processes to which these substances are subjected when introduced into a living organism. The absorption, distribution and storage, biotransformation, and subsequent excretion of a chemical will determine how and where it should be administered, the extent of its overall effects, and how much of the drug should be given (dose) in order to achieve the desired effect. We should all be able to appreciate the concept of side effects and the methods used to alleviate or prevent unwanted side effects. 

Pharmacodynamics may be defined as the study of the actions and effects of drugs on organs, tissues, cellular, and subcellular levels. Therefore, pharmacodynamics provides us with information about the beneficial action of drugs and their side effects. 

---