Urinary parameters

Renal Effects. Urinary parameters (blood urea nitrogen, pH, osmolality, voliune, protein, sugar, and sediment) were normal in female dogs exposed to 3,3 -dichlorobenzidine (10.4 mg/kg/day) throughout a 7-year study in which female dogs were exposed to 10.4 mg/kg/day 3,3 -dichlorobenzidine. At necropsy, no histological effects to the kidneys were reported in any of the dogs (Stula et al. 1978). 

Male and female Swiss-Webster mice were exposed to 60 ppm [240 mg/m ] vinylidene chloride for 4 h (Speerschneider Dekant, 1995). Urine was collected over a 48-h period and animals were then killed. Male mice were more sensitive to vinylidene chloride-induced nephrotoxicity, as assessed by changes in urinary volume, creatinine, glucose and y-glutamyltranspeptidase levels. Increased necrosis was observed in exposed male mice and female mice pretreated with testosterone. Female mice had no observable kidney lesions or alteration in urinary parameters, suggesting the role of CYP2E1 in vinylidene chloride-induced nephrotoxicity. 

Changes in clinical semm and urinary parameters, as well as microscopic examination of tissues, generally indicated severe liver and kidney damage. Acute renal and/or hepatic failure was the probable cause of death. Severe hepatic, renal, and capillary damage was also indicated by light and phase-contrast microscope (Ben-Hur et al. 1972 Ben Hur and Appelbaum 1973). 

Before the treatment period starts, behavioral, hematological, clinical chemistry, and urinary parameters have to be determined in order to assure a proper health status of the animals. If one of these parameters is out of the normal range the animal is useless for toxicology studies or even contributes to a wrong interpretation of results. Further, an acclimatization period should guarantee the adaptation to the new environment in the testing facility. 

For the biochemical urinary parameters frequently tests sticks are used. This method has to be used with care because most of them have been developed as a diagnostic tool for human clinical use. 

Schnell-Feith E, Kist-van Holthe J, Conneman N, van Zwietne PHT, Holscher HC, Zonderland HM, Brand R, van der Heijden BJ. Etiology of nephrocalcinosis in preterm neonates Association of nutritional intake and urinary parameters. Kidney Int 2000 58 2102-2110. 

There are two general models for evaluating the nephrotoxic potential of chemicals that utilize whole animals. In one model, conscious animals are administered the test compound and renal functional parameters (Table 2) evaluated over a period of hours or days. Some of the urinary parameters routinely monitored using in vivo nephrotoxicity studies include volume, osmolality, and contents. Urine volume can increase (polyuria), decrease (oliguria), or approach a zero value (anuria). Urinary osmolality is a measure of the ability of the kidney to concentrate urine. In polyuric states, urinary osmolality usually decreases from control levels, while in oliguric states urine tends to be more concentrated and urinary osmolality values rise above the control level. 

No adverse effects were observed in a safety study of reishi in healthy volunteers orally administered 2 g of reishi extract daily for 10 days. No significant changes in hematological, cardiac, or urinary parameters were observed. Blood tests for immunological activity indicated no obvious changes in CD4, CD8, and CD19, with some elevation of CD56 cell counts (Wicks et al. 2007). 

McDuffie JE, Sablad M, Ma J, and Snook S. Urinary parameters predictive of cisplatin-induced acute renal injury in dogs. Cytokine. 52(3) 156-62, Dec 2010. 

Approximately 10% of the human population (with regional differences indicating both genetic and environmental factors [33]) is affected by the formation of stones or calculi in the urinary tract. Urolithiasis is not only a painful condition, but also causes annual costs to the health system in the order of billions of dollars in the USA alone [34, 35]. Based on their composition, structure and location in the urinary tract, renal stones have been classified into 11 groups and their formation mechanisms have been discussed together with alterations in urinary parameters and metabolic risk factors for renal lithiasis [35]. Approximately 70% of these stones contain calcium oxalate monohydrate (COM) and dihydrate as major components, while other calculi are composed of ammonium magnesium phosphate (struvite), calcium phosphates (hydroxyapatite and brushite), uric acid and urates, cystine and xanthine. An accurate knowledge of the solubilities of these substances is necessary to understand the cause of renal or bladder calculi formation and find ways towards its prevention and treatment [36]. 

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