Total carotenoid

Tomato crtB from E. uredcvora Tomato polygalacturonase (PG) Increased total carotenoids Fraser et al., 2002... 

Daily consumption of various fruits, vegetables, and derived juices contributes to human intake of carotenoids. The estimation of carotenoid intakes has been made possible throngh publication of the qnalitative and qnantitative carotenoid contents of commonly consnmed foods. Average intake estimates in the United States are around 6.5 mg/day. In seven conntries in Enrope, the average total carotenoid intake based on the snm of the five carotenoids was approximately 14 mg/day. When dietary source of carotenoids were analyzed, carrots appeared as the major sonrces of p-carotene in all conntries except Spain, where spinach was the main contribntor. 

Some prospective and case-control studies also investigated the relationship of carotenoids and the evolution of CCA-IMT. Although the EVA study showed no association between total carotenoids and IMT, others like the ARIC study, the Los Angeles Atherosclerosis Study, " and the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study demonstrated the protective role of isolated carotenoids such as lycopene, lutein, zeaxanthin, and P-cryptoxanthin on IMT. Thus, findings from prospective and case-control studies have suggested that some carotenoids such as lycopene and P-carotene may present protective effects against CVD and particularly myocardial infarcts and intima media thickness, a marker of atherosclerosis. 

In processed products of the tropical fruit caja and in some cultivars of persimmons, all-tran P-cryptoxanthin was found to be the major carotenoid, contributing to 31 to 38% of the total carotenoid contents in both fruits (Table... 

Other common fruits are also good sources of lycopene that represents 87 to 95% of the total carotenoid content in several seeded and seedless watermelon cultivars," ° 56 to 66% in different papaya cultivars, and 24 to 58% in pink grapefruits (Table 4.2.3). 

Among tropical fruits, red guavas, containing 76 to 86% of lycopene in relation to total carotenoid, can be considered good sources of lycopene. An indigenous Southeast Asia fruit called gac in Vietnam and used as a rice colorant shows an intense red color in the seed membrane (seed pulp or aril) of the ripe fruit the mesocarp, characterized by its yellow color, is discarded. Although some discrepancies can be found in the literature regarding the lycopene content in gac fruits (Table 4.2.3), this fruit is an extraordinarily rich source of lycopene. ... 

Red peppers are good sources of zeaxanthin (Table 4.2.5) although it represents less than 15% of total carotenoid content. - Sea buckthorn, a berry fruit native to... 

Bixin, a diapocarotenoid with a cis configuration at the carbon 9 and two carboxylic groups (one methylated), accounts for more than 80% of the total carotenoid content in annatto seeds, and has only been encountered to date in these seeds. The amount of red pigments in annatto seeds varies from 1.5 to 4%, depending on the variety. Bixin is the main pigment in commercial annatto powder... 

Over-expression of bacterial phytoene synthase led to only modest increases in pigment accumulation (except in the case of chloroplast-contaiifing tissues). Attention turned to CrtI, one gene that might control flux through the entire four desaturation steps from phytoene to lycopene (discussed in Section 5.3.2.4). Only a modest increase in carotenoid content in tomatoes and a variety of changes in carotenoid composition including more P-carotene, accompanied by an overall decrease in total carotenoid content (no lycopene increase), resulted when CrtI was over-expressed under control of CaMV 35S. Apparently, the bacterial desaturase... 

In a very recent study in potatoes, inhibition of LCYE accumulation was accomplished by an antisense LcyE driven by the patatin promoter and allowed rechanneling of lycopene toward the P-carotene branch of the pathway to produce up to 14-fold increased levels of P-carotene as well as up to 2.5-fold increased total carotenoids. RNAi and TILLING for manipulation of carotenogenesis have yet to be reported, but these new techniques for suppression of function and generation and selection of allelic diversity are likely to impact future research and production of varieties with enhanced pigment accumulation. 

This pigment is recognized by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (21 Code of Federal Regulations, Part 73) as a color additive exempted from certification (Subpart A, Foods, Section 73.35, Astaxanthin). Formulations containing astaxanthin include soft gelatin capsules containing 100 mg equivalents of total carotenoids, a skin care... 

Mapari, S. A.S. et al., Exploring fungal biodiversity for the production of water-soluble pigments as potential natural food colorants, Curr. Opin. BiotechnoL, 16, 231, 2005. Dufosse, L., Mabon, R, and Binet, A., Assessment of the coloring strength of Brevi-bacterium linens strains spectrocolorimetry versus total carotenoid extraction/quan-tification, J. Dairy ScL, 84, 354, 2001. 

Eor estimation of the total carotenoid content of a sample, generally the absorbance is measured in petroleum ether at 450 nm and a mean value of 2500 forAj is used. In case a known carotenoid is present in the sample, the absorbance measured at the of that carotenoid and its corresponding Aj can be used for quantifi-... 

The changes that occur after the heat processing of food systems are often monitored by different parameters, such as total carotenoid content (and therefore isomerization and oxidation are underestimated), individual carotenoids (overall changes may be missed), and CIELAB color parameters (no information on carotenoid degradation mechanism). The data given in Table 12.3 reflects the influence of matrix composition, food state (liquid or solid), and measured parameter on the carotenoid degradation kinetics. 

The degradation kinetics of total carotenoid contents and visual color of papaya puree were investigated at temperatures between 70°C and 105°C (Ahmed et al. 2002). The thermal degradation of total carotenoids and color change parameters (Hunter, axb values) followed first-order reaction... 

Fresh tomato fruit contains about 0.72 to 20 mg of lycopene per 100 g of fresh weight, which accounts for about 30% of the total carotenoids in plasma (Stahl and Sies 1996). In contrast to other pigments such as (3-carotene, lutein, violaxanthin, auroxanthin, neoxanthin, and chlorophylls a and b, which accumulate in inner pulp and in the outer region of the pericarp, lycopene appears only at the end of the maturation period and almost exclusively in the external part of the fruit (Laval-Martin and others 1975). Other tomato components that can contribute to health include flavonoids, folic acid, and vitamin E (Dorais and others 2001a,b). 

A minor proportion of TDAC comes from carotenoids. Daily intake of carotenoids in the Spanish diet is estimated at between 9 and 13 mg/person (O Neill and others 2001). Lutein, (3-carotene, and lycopene account for over 80% of the total carotenoid intake... 

Particle size. For the extraction of carotenoids from freeze-dried carrot using SC-CO2, the studies of Goto and others (1994) and Sun and Temelli (2006) show that a higher extraction yield was obtained with small carrot particles. In the study of Sun and Temelli (2006), the total carotenoid yield increased from 1,110 to 1,370 and 1,504 pg/g dry carrot with particle sizes of 1-2 mm to 0.5-1 mm and 0.3-0.5 mm, respectively. 

Flow rate and extraction time. Dynamic techniques for the extraction of carotenoids with SC-CO2 use flow rates that vary from 0.5 to 15 mL/min (measured at extraction temperature and pressure) with different effects depending on the matrix (Rozzi and others 2002 Subra and others 1998 Saldana and others 2006). Subra and others (1998) extracted (3-carotene from 1 to 2.5 g freeze-dried carrots and studied the effect of flow rates (0.4 and 1.2 liter/min) they obtained higher yields of (3-carotene at a flow rate of 1.2 liter/min. Sun and Temelli (2006) also evaluated the effect of flow rate (0.5 and 1.0 liter/min) on the extraction of (3-carotene with SC-CO2 + canola oil. The total carotenoids yield increased with flow rate, ranging from 934.8 to 1,973.6 pg/g dry carrot at C02 flow rates from 0.5 to 2 liter/min (measured at STP), respectively (Sun and Temelli, 2006). However, the lycopene yield decreased from 38.8% to 8% as flow rate was increased from 2.5 to 15 mL/min (measured at extraction temperature and pressure) (Rozzi and others 2002). 

Total carotenoids Orange juice 90.4-93.6% Cortes and others 2006... 

Total Carotenoids Orange juice 100% Sanchez-Moreno and others 2005... 

Technology Bioactive Total carotenoids Food product Carrots, green beans, and broccoli Retention 100% Reference Mclnerney and others 2007... 

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