Theory and Instruments

The several aspects of polymer chain microstructure have been studied by both chemical and physical methods. Koenig (3) describes several of these methods, which are summarized in Tables 2.1 and 2.2. 

The most basic method of characterizing any material uses elemental analysis (Table 2.1). Elemental analysis helps identify unknowns, confirms new syntheses, and yields information on the purity of the polymer. 

Functional group analysis relates to those reactions that polymers undergo, either intentionally or accidently. Selective degradation refers to those chemical reactions that a polymer undergoes which cut particular bonds. These may 

Elemental analysis Gross composition of polymers and copolymers, yielding the percent composition of each element C, H, N, O, S, and so on. (a) 

Functional group analysis Reaction of a specific group with a known reagent. Acids, bases, and oxidizing and reducing agents are common. Example titration of carboxyl groups. (b.c) 

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High performance liquid chromatography is a technique that has arisen from the application to liquid chromatography (lc) of theories and instrumentation that were originally developed for gas chromatography (gc). 

The most often used detection method for the optical sensors are based on absorption, luminescence, reflectance, and Raman scattering measurements. The basic theory and instrumentation of most of these... 

Immunoassays based on phase-modulation spectroscopy have been implemented by two distinctly different approaches. Phase-resolved immunoassays rely on fluorescence intensity measurements, in which the emission of one fluorescent species in a mixture is suppressed, and the remainder is quantitated. Phase fluorescence immunoassays utilize measurements of the phase angle and modulation, which change in response to fluorescence lifetime changes. Common aspects of the theory and instrumentation are discussed in this section, followed by individual discussions of the different approaches. 

Finklea, H.O. Self-assembled monolayers on Electrodes. In Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry Applications, Theory and Instrumentations, Meyers, R.A. Ed. John Wiley Sons Chichester, 2000 Vol. 11, pp.10090-101000... 

R.B. Cody, Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry History, theory, and instrumentation. In B.N. Pramanik, A.K. Ganguly, M.L. Gross (Eds.) Applied Electrospray Mass Spectrometry, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 2002, pp. 1-104. 

Ref. Griffiths, P. R., Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry Theory and Instrumentation , in Transform Techniques in Chemistry, P.R. Griffiths, ed., Plenum Press, New York (1978) p. 125... 

R. A. Meyers (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry Application, Theory and Instrumentation, Wiley, Chichester, 2000. 

The theory and instrumentation of Fourier transform mass spectrometry (FTMS) have been discussed extensively in this book and elsewhere [21-23]. All experiments were performed on a Nicolet prototype FTMS-1000 Fourier transform mass spectrometer previously described in detail [24] and equipped with a 5.2 cm cubic trapping cell situated between the poles of a Varian 15 in. electromagnet maintained at 0.85 T. The cell was constructed in our laboratory and utilizes two 80 transmittance stainless steel screens as the transmitter plates. This permits irradiation with a 2.5 kW Hg-Xe arc lamp, used in conjunction with a Schoeffel 0.25 m monochromator set for 10 nm resolution. Metal ions are generated by focusing the beam of a Quanta Ray Nd YAG laser (either the fundamental line at 1064 nm or the frequency doubled line at 532 nm) into the center-drilled hole (1 mm) of a high-purity rod of the appropriate metal supported on the transmitter screen nearest to the laser. The laser ionization technique for generating metal ions has been outlined elsewhere [25]-... 

It is still necessary that an organic chemist understands a reasonable amount of theory and instrumentation in IR spectrometry. We believe that our coverage of characteristic group absorptions is useful, together with group-absorption charts, characteristic spectra, references, and Student Exercises. This chapter remains essentially the same except the Student Exercises at the end of the chapter. Most of the spectra have been redone. 

Gas chromatographic analysis proper does not differ from the conventional procedure in its arrangement for derivatives, as the derivatives used are often common compounds which can, in other circumstances, be the object of analysis themselves (e.g., carboxylic acids versus esters). It is beyond the scope of this book to deal with the detailed theory and instrumentation of GC and readers are referred elsewhere [23—25] only some peculiarities introduced into GC as a result of the application of derivatives will be discussed here. 

Theories and instrumentation of Fourier transform IR spectroscopy and electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis are briefly reviewed. The possibility of using these techniques in detection and analysis of acid impurities distributed at surfaces of paper documents produced during the period from 1790 to 1983 is demonstrated. Results show that all of the papers tested contained carboxylic groups. The carboxylic acids found in the paper of 1790 are the results of oxidation and aging. Acids in other papers are due to fiber oxidation as well as the presence of rosin acids. These techniques show promise as nondestructive methods for elucidating chemical characteristics of surfaces of paper documents. 

Detailed descriptions of the theory and instrumentation of nuclear magnetic resonance Spectroscopy can be found elsewhere (see Bibliography). In this chapter the important features of the NMR spectrum and their use in the interpretation of spectra are described, together with details of certain special procedures which assist interpretation. 

Modern spectral theory and technology have jointly brought chemical structure research into a new era. Mulidimensional NMR (nD-NMR) theory and instrumentation in particular have provided many new ways for... 

This general approach will discuss the fundamental principles, instrumentation, and current applications of IR spectroscopy. Numerous reference materials, covering all aspects of infrared spectroscopy, have been published over the years. For a more in-depth understanding of the theory and instrumentation, readers can refer to the bibliography and references listed at the end of this article. 

The enormous advances and changes in organometallic chemistry since the discovery of ferrocene would not have been possible had there not been a concomitant development of instrumental techniques and widespread availability of instruments. Infrared spectroscopy has long been known, but recent extensions in both theory and instrumentation have greatly expanded its applications. More recently, it has been complemented and supplemented by Raman spectroscopy. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, particularly for the hydrogen nucleus, has been an extremely important tool much early work is reviewed in the article by Maddox et al. 172). In more recent years, nuclei such as F, °B, and a variety of others have also... 

Meyers, Robert A. Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry Applications, Theory, and Instrumentation. New York Wiley, 2000. 

Karnilc HB. Laboratory instruments in chnical chemistry, principles of. In Meyers RA, ed. Encyclopedia of analytical chemistry Applications, theory, and instrumentation. New York John Wiley Sons, 2000 1395-410. 

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