The structure of organizations

It is impossible to live in a civilized society without close contact with many large organizations—schools, universities, public utihties, government and local government departments, the Health Service, commercial and industrial companies, and so on. Despite the huge variety of such organizations, there are many ways in which they resemble each other. 

Fundamentally, the law recognizes individuals—human beings who can be regarded as responsible for their actions, in other words, all human beings except those excluded by youth or mental incapacity. Individuals can enter into contracts which can be enforced by the courts individuals can be tried for crimes individuals can be sued for damages individuals can give evidence Acts of Parliament can impose duties on individuals and so on. 

As we have said, for most business purposes, it is desirable to have an organization which has its own legal existence separate from that of its proprietors. The law governing this is contained in the Companies Acts 1985 arrd 1989. 

Companies may be either public or private. Public comparties are companies which are allowed to offer their shares to the publie (but need not neeessarily do so) their names must end with the words Public Lirrrited Corrrpany or the abbreviation PLC A private company carmot offer its shares to the pubUc its rtame must end with the word Lirrrited or the abbreviation Ltd . Publie eomparties must be registered as such they must have an issued share capital (see below) of norttinal value greater than 50,000 and they are subject to greater regulation than private companies. 

Companies can be limited or unlimited. In an unlimited compatty the shareholders are personally liable for all the company s debts not surprisingly, this type of company is very rare. A limited company may be limited by shares or by guarantee. If a company is 

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Braude, Ultra-Violet Light Absorption and the Structure of Organic Compounds Annual Reports, 42, 105 (1945). ... 

Our first three chapters established some fundamental principles concerning the structure of organic molecules and introduced the connection between structure and reactivity with a review of acid-base reactions In this chapter we explore structure and reactivity m more detail by developing two concepts functional groups and reaction mechanisms A functional group is the atom or group m a molecule most respon sible for the reaction the compound undergoes under a prescribed set of conditions How the structure of the reactant is transformed to that of the product is what we mean by the reaction mechanism... 

Before the advent of NMR spectroscopy infrared (IR) spectroscopy was the mstrumen tal method most often applied to determine the structure of organic compounds Although NMR spectroscopy m general tells us more about the structure of an unknown com pound IR still retains an important place m the chemist s inventory of spectroscopic methods because of its usefulness m identifying the presence of certain functional groups within a molecule... 

Protonation of the anion [SN2] by acetic acid in diethyl ether produces the thermally unstable sulfur diimide S(NH)2. Like all sulfur diimides, the parent compound S(NH)2 can exist as three isomers (Scheme 5.5). Ab initio molecular orbital calculations indicate that the (cis,cis) configuration is somewhat more stable than the (cis,trans) isomer, while the (trans,trans) isomer is expected to possess considerably higher energy. The alternative syn,anti or E,Z nomenclatures may also be used to describe these isomers. The structures of organic derivatives S(NR)2 (R = alkyl, aryl) are discussed in Section 10.4.2. 

We contend therefore that introduction of molecular modeling very early into the currieulum need not complicate or eonfuse the learning of organie chemistry, but rather assist the student in visualizing the structures of organic molecules and in learning the intimate connections between molecular structure and molecular properties. 

Mass spectrometry can be used for gas analysis, for the analysis of petroleum products, and in examining semiconductors for impurities. It is also a very useful tool for establishing the structure of organic compounds. 

Dunitz, J. D. (1979) X-Ray Analysis and the Structure of Organic Molecules. Cornell University Press, Ithaca NY [4.2]. 

Paramagnetic reagents for the investigation of the structures of organic ligands. V. K. Vornov, Russ. Chem. Rev. (Engl Transl), 1974, 43,171-183 (109). 

The results shown in the table provide further evidence of the extraordinary extent to which the tetrahedral carbon atom of van t Hoff and Le Bel determines the structure of organic molecules. 

Chemists, biochemists, biotechnologists, and physicists now routinely use NMR spectroscopy as a powerful research tool. The effective application of ID and 2D NMR expteriments depends largely on the skill and innovation of the user. This book is intended to provide practical knowledge to research workers in the use of NMR spectroscopic techniques to elucidate the structure of organic molecules. Every attempt has been made to prevent the book from becoming too technical, and the underlying principles behind many of the experiments have been described nonmathematically. 

Applications Useful 2D NMR experiments for identification of surfactants are homonuclear proton correlation (COSY, TOCSY) and heteronuclear proton-carbon correlation (HETCOR, HMQC) spectroscopy [200,201]. 2D NMR experiments employing proton detection can be performed in 5 to 20 min for surfactant solutions of more than 50 mM. Van Gorkum and Jensen [238] have described several 2D NMR techniques that are often used for identification and quantification of anionic surfactants. The resonance frequencies of spin-coupled nuclei are correlated and hence give detailed information on the structure of organic molecules. 

Electron dot formulas are useful for deducing the structures of organic molecules, but it is more convenient to use simpler representations—structural or graphic formulas—in which a line is used to denote a shared pair of electrons. Because each pair of electrons shared between two atoms is equivalent to a total bond order of 1, each shared pair can be represented by a line between the symbols of the elements. Unshared electrons on the atoms are usually not shown in this kind of representation. The resulting representations of molecules are called graphic formulas or structural formulas. The structural formulas for the compounds (a) to (e) described in Example 21.1 may be written as follows ... 

For even more convenience in representing the structures of organic compounds, particularly in printed material, line formulas are used, so-called because they are printed on one line. In line formulas, each carbon atom is written on a line adjacent to the symbols for the other elements to which it is bonded. Line formulas show the general sequence in which the carbon atoms are attached, but in order to interpret them properly, the permitted total bond orders of all the respective atoms must be kept in mind. Again referring to the compounds (a) to (e) described above, the line formulas are as follows ... 

A type of spectroscopy used in chemical analysis and the determination of the structure of organic compounds and polymers. 

During the very first series of studies using single-crystal x-ray crystallography to determine the structures of organic molecules, Robertson reported the structure of resorcinol (1,3-dihydroxybenzene) [25]. This crystalline material corresponded to that ordinarily obtained at room temperature, and was later termed the a-form. Shortly thereafter, it was found that the a-form underwent a transformation into a denser crystalline modification (denoted as the P-form) when heated at about 74°C,... 

Domenicano, A. and Murray-Rust, P. (1979). Tetrahedron Lett. 2283 Dubois, J. E. and Coss6-Barbi, A. (1988). J. Am. Chem. Soc. 110, 1220 Dunitz, J. D. (1979). X-Ray Analysis and the Structure of Organic Molecules. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY... 

Spectroscopic techniques may provide the least ambiguous methods for verification of actual sorption mechanisms. Zeltner et al. (Chapter 8) have applied FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared) spectroscopy and microcalorimetric titrations in a study of the adsorption of salicylic acid by goethite these techniques provide new information on the structure of organic acid complexes formed at the goethite-water interface. Ambe et al. (Chapter 19) present the results of an emission Mossbauer spectroscopic study of sorbed Co(II) and Sb(V). Although Mossbauer spectroscopy can only be used for a few chemical elements, the technique provides detailed information about the molecular bonding of sorbed species and may be used to differentiate between adsorption and surface precipitation. 

C nuclei has become a powerful tool for elucidation of the structures of organic compounds. A large number of textbooks, monographs, articles, and data collections (1-15) deal with this method, and individual reviews have been devoted to practically all classes of natural products and related organic compounds (lb-24). 

This series of volumes, established by Victor Gold in 1963, aims to bring before a wide readership among the chemical community substantial, authoritative and considered reviews of areas of chemistry in which quantitative methods are used in the study of the structures of organic compounds and their relation to physical and chemical properties. 

The 5 major spectroscopic methods (MS, UV, IR, H NMR and NMR) have become established as the principal tools for the determination of the structures of organic compounds, because between them they detect a wide variety of structural elements. 

DETERMINiNG THE STRUCTURE OF ORGANiC COMPOUNDS FROM SPECTRA... 

Chapter 8 Determining the Structure of Organic Compounds from Spectra... 

Infrared (IR) spectroscopy was the first modern spectroscopic method which became available to chemists for use in the identification of the structure of organic compounds. Not only is IR spectroscopy useful in determining which functional groups are present in a molecule, but also with more careful analysis of the spectrum, additional structural details can be obtained. For example, it is possible to determine whether an alkene is cis or trans. With the advent of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, IR spectroscopy became used to a lesser extent in structural identification. This is because NMR spectra typically are more easily interpreted than are IR spectra. However, there was a renewed interest in IR spectroscopy in the late 1970s for the identification of highly unstable molecules. Concurrent with this renewed interest were advances in computational chemistry which allowed, for the first time, the actual computation of IR spectra of a molecular system with reasonable accuracy. This chapter describes how the confluence of a new experimental technique with that of improved computational methods led to a major advance in the structural identification of highly unstable molecules and reactive intermediates. 

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