The development of activation

An important innovation of the 1995 law was the introduction of a network of regional placement offices (RAV/ORP), which are responsible for the implementation of the new law. They process unemployment benefit claims, monitor job search activities, provide access to active labour market polices and can enforce sanctions upon non-cooperative recipients. Regional placement offices were set up by the cantons, but financed essentially by the federal unemployment insurance scheme. As will be shown below (see Sect. 5), this resulted in some important differences in the activation practice across cantons. 

Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, unemployment insurance remained the main point of activation for non-working individuals. However, the sharp increase in social assistance and invalidity benefit beneficiaries prompted developments also in these two areas. Initially, these took the shape of experiments or pilot 

5 Insured persons who are financially responsible for children are exempted from this measure. 

---

The development of active ceramic-polymer composites was undertaken for underwater hydrophones having hydrostatic piezoelectric coefficients larger than those of the commonly used lead zirconate titanate (PZT) ceramics (60—70). It has been demonstrated that certain composite hydrophone materials are two to three orders of magnitude more sensitive than PZT ceramics while satisfying such other requirements as pressure dependency of sensitivity. The idea of composite ferroelectrics has been extended to other appHcations such as ultrasonic transducers for acoustic imaging, thermistors having both negative and positive temperature coefficients of resistance, and active sound absorbers. 

In conclusion, the above summary of oxidation methods shows that there is still room for further improvements in the field of selective olefin epoxidation. The development of active and selective catalysts capable of oxidizing a broad range of olefin substrates with aqueous hydrogen peroxide as terminal oxidant in inexpensive and environmentally benign solvents remains a continuing challenge. 

The activation overpotential Tiac,w is due to slow charge transfer reactions at the electrode-electrolyte interface and is related to current via the Butler-Volmer equation (4.7). A slow chemical reaction (e.g. adsorption, desorption, spillover) preceding or following the charge-transfer step can also contribute to the development of activation overpotential. 

The main reason for the rapid development of metathesis reactions on a laboratory scale (the reaction itself had been known for quite a long time) has been the development of active and robust second-generation ruthenium catalysts (6/3-14 to 6/3-16), which usually provide better yields than the first-generation Grubbs catalysts (6/3-9 or 6/3-13) (Scheme 6/3.2). This also reflects the huge number of domino processes based on ruthenium-catalyzed metathesis, which is usually followed by a second or even a third metathesis reaction. However, examples also exist where, after a metathesis, a second transition metal-catalyzed transformation or a pericyclic reaction takes place. 

Further work at EniTecnologies was conducted with Rhodococcus strains. Rhodococ-cus was selected for its metabolical versatility, easy availability in soils and water, and remarkable solvent tolerance. Its capabilities for catalyzing diverse transformation reactions of crude oils, such as sulfur removal, alkanes and aromatics oxidation and catabolism caught their attention. Hence, genetic tools for the engineering of Rhodococcus strains have been applied to improve its biotransformation performance and its tolerance to certain common contaminants of the crude oil, such as cadmium. The development of active biomolecules led to the isolation and characterization of plasmid vectors and promoters. Strains have been constructed in which the careful over-expression of selected components of the desulfurization pathway leads to the enhancement of the sulfur removal activity in model systems. Rhodococcus, Gordona, and Nocardia were transformed in this way trying to improve their catalytic performance in BDS. In a... 

For a long time, conventional alkaline electrolyzers used Ni as an anode. This metal is relatively inexpensive and a satisfactory electrocatalyst for O2 evolution. With the advent of DSA (a Trade Name for dimensionally stable anodes) in the chlor-alkali industry [41, 42[, it became clear that thermal oxides deposited on Ni were much better electrocatalysts than Ni itself with reduction in overpotential and increased stability. This led to the development of activated anodes. In general, Ni is a support for alkaline solutions and Ti for acidic solutions. The latter, however, poses problems of passivation at the Ti/overlayer interface that can reduce the stability of these anodes [43[. On the other hand, in acid electrolysis, the catalyst is directly pressed against the membrane, which eliminates the problem of support passivation. In addition to improving stability and activity, the way in which dry oxides are prepared (particularly thermal decomposition) develops especially large surface areas that contribute to the optimization of their performance. 

The first step, reduction (kt), probably occurs so quickly on A1P04 that it has little effect on the development of activity. Instead, alkylation (k2) must be the controlling step (k, > k2). This would explain why a catalyst prereduced in CO has about the same kinetic profile as its oxidized parent (see Fig. 23). TEB probably reduces the catalyst but does not alkylate it. Thus, it also gives the same kinetic profile. Adding TEB to a CO-reduced catalyst has no effect,... 

These same factors probably also determine the quite different kinetic profile of Cr/silica, whose sites are slower to form and slower to die. The reduction assumes more importance on silica, controlling the development of activity. Alkylmetals accelerate the reduction but do not create a vast new population of sites. 

Oral contraceptive tablets are used to prevent pregnancy. Isoniazid may be used to prevent the development of active tuberculosis in those individuals who have been exposed to the disease but show no evidence of infection, in those who test positively for it but have no apparent disease, and in those with once active but now inactive disease. 

This suggested to CENAM the development of activities for the establishment of traceable chemical measurements in Mexico in two stages the first step from 1992 to 1997 [2] corresponded to the period of development of infrastructure and human resources of CENAM, which was possible thanks to the collaboration of other NMIs involved in developing reference materials and their later certification and the second period, from 1998 to 2002, in which a limited number of certified reference materials (CRM) were developed and certified for industrial application as well as to meet normative requirements, and also some of the primary methods of measurement were declared as national standards in a Federal Register, known as DOF. 

The compositions of useful braze alloys have been carefully devised to ensure satisfactory wetting of the proposed component materials, but other adjustments have been made to achieve desirable mechanical characteristics of the joints. This adjustment has been made for virtually all commercial braze families and has been particularly important in the development of active metal brazes for ceramic components. 

In the development of active photocatalysts imder visible light, it is essential to control their electronic energy structure. The strategies for controlling the energy structure of photocatalysts for water splitting may be classified in three ways (i) cation or anion doping, (ii) use of mixed semiconductor composites, and (iii) use of semiconductor alloys. 

Recent achievements in the development of active-site directed affinity probes for proteases and other enzyme classes provide direct chemical labeling of proteases of interest in the biological system (24-27). These specific activity probes allow joint evaluation of selective protease inhibition concomitant with labeling of relevant protease enzymes for more analyses. Moreover, activity-based probes that selectively label the main protease subclasses—cysteine, serine, metallo, aspartic, and threonine—can provide advantageous chemical approaches for functional protease identification. Activity probe labeling of proteases allows direct identihcation of enzyme proteins by tandem mass spectrometry. Such chemical probes directed to cysteine proteases have been instrumental for identification of the new cathepsin L cysteine protease pathway for neuropeptide biosynthesis, as summarized in this article. 

Molecular assays have utility for the diagnosis of active GMV disease, because GMV DNA concentrations are higher in patients with active GMV disease than in those with asymptomatic infection. A study in fiver transplant recipients using the Amplicor PGR assay showed that the median peak viral load in patients with asymptomatic infection was 1850 copies/mL compared with 55,000 copies/mL for those with active disease. The viral load cutoff that was most predictive of the development of active disease was between 2000 and 5000 copies/mL of plasma. A similar study in renal transplant recipients using the Hybrid Gapture assay showed that the risk of developing GMV disease increased from 1.5% with a viral load of 10,000 copies/mLof bloodto 73% when the viral load was 1 million copies/mL of blood. It is important to note that the viral load cutoffs differed in the two studies because of the use of different assays and differences in specimen type (plasma versus whole blood). 

In the first stage of the first two strategies, anaerobic mesophilic conditions allow the development of activity of Streptococcus sp. and "lactic yeast" (isolated from blue Stilton whey), which consume lactose and produce lactate, ethanol and carbon dioxide, and further biomass. In the second stage, aerobic conditions are employed which are favorable to the activity of an added mixed population of Bacillus sp., which degrades all available organic acids and ethanol, producing CO2 and further biomass. 

Carbostannylation sometimes proceeds with no activators, but the applicability of such reactions is severely limited to a few types of special substrates. The development of activation methods in the mid 1990s made carbostannylation a synthetically significant tool. Three major activators are now available. Thus, radical initiators, Lewis acids, and late transition metals were found to be effective as activators by Hosomi, Yamamoto, and Shirakawa-Hiyama, respectively. These activators are required only in a catalytic amount to promote the reaction. Scheme 5.7.2 summarizes the mechanism of the activation of carbon-tin bonds by these activators. The cleavage of carbon-tin bonds by a radical initiator gives a stannyl radical, which adds to an unsaturated bond. The resulting alkenyl or alkyl radical abstracts an R... 

This review will report on the progress made in understanding the biochemistry and physiology of blood coagulation and thrombosis and the development of active antithrombotic agents in the last 2 years. It is suggested that the reader refers to the most recent review of this series. ... 

It may be difficult to formulate a rigorous mathematical expression of FV, fully consistent with the above physical picture. Bondi stated, every author defines the free-volume as what he wants it to mean. This may very well be true. Thus, various expressions have been proposed for the FV. Some of them are employed in the development of activity coefficient models for polymer solutions. 

---