Surfaces visualization

Identification. If the notch left by incomplete penetration emerges at a visually accessible surface, visual examination, perhaps aided by magnetic-particle or liquid-penetrant techniques, may reveal the defect. Otherwise, ultrasonics, radiography, or eddy-current techniques may have to be used. 

The SEM provides the investigator with a highly magnified image of the surface of a material that is very similar to what one would expect if one could actually see the surface visually. This tends to simplify image interpretations considerably, but... 

The precise positioning capabilities, which make high spatial resolution possible, give the SECM an important edge over other electrochemical techniques employing UMEs [20]. For example, the SECM can pattern the substrate surface, visualize its topography, and probe chemical reactivity on the micrometer or nanometer scale. Here, we briefly survey the fundamentals of various modes of the SECM operation and then focus on more recent advances in SECM theory and applications. 

Fig. 1 Distribution of the surface potential (i/>surf) on polymer surfaces visualized by means of the SPM technique for PS (a) and line scan (b) along the white line in the SPM image...

After observing the rapid acceptance of the CMC equation, the CIE set up a technical committee to look at whether it should issue a recommendation for the CMC equation or derive a new equation. The committee developed a large set of color difference specimens, all produced in automotive lacquer on metal. These samples have extremely smooth surfaces. Visual judgments were performed in a uni-... 

Examination of a ftuoropolymer surface visually shows the following t5q)es of degradation. They are based on visual manifestations only and do not refer to the underlying degradation mechanism. Underlying degradation mechanisms are covered in the failure analysis section (Ch. 10). 

Figure 3 Colloid solution sample from the surface - visual aspect (x 1.5)...

Visualization of CT, MRI, and nuclear medicine images can greatly benefit fi om specialized visualization techniques, since they are series of two-dimensional cross sections. Instead of having the surgeon mentally correlate consecutive slices and create a mental three-dimensional view, it is desirable to directly reconstruct the three-dimensional information and show it as a new computed image. There are two families of visualization algorithms volume visualization and surface visualization. We describe them briefly next. 

Pickhardt PJ, Taylor AJ, Gopal DV (2006) Surface visualization at 3D endoluminal CT colonography degree of coverage and implications for polyp detection. Gastroenterology 130 1582-1587... 

Pickhardt PJ, Lee AD, McFarland EG et al (2005) Linear polyp measurement at CT colonography in vitro and in vivo comparison of two-dimensional and three-dimensional displays. Radiology 236 872-878 Pickhardt PJ, Taylor AJ, Gopal DV (2006) Surface visualization at 3D endoluminal CT colonography degree of coverage and implications for polyp detection. Gastroenterology 130 1582-1587... 

In studies with a high prevalence for colorectal polyps or cancer, primary 2D reviewing performed well (PiNEAU et al. 2003 Johnson et al. 2003b Iannaccone et al. 2004a) and in comparative studies (primary 2D vs primary 3D) (McFarland et al. 2001 Macari et al. 2004 Iannaccone et al. 2004a) no difference in sensitivity was detected between primary 2D and primary 3D review methods. It is noteworthy that in these comparative series most likely conventional 3D methods with suboptimal surface visualization were used. This may have underestimated the diagnostic value of 3D. 

Although we cannot determine the definite cause for the differences in the mentioned papers, it is striking that the two studies that reported the highest sensitivity used primary 3D review methods with improved surface visualization to detect polyps, whereas the two studies with the lower sensitivity used a primary 2D review method. 

To further quantify the locus of failure, the epoxy film thicknesses on the failure surfaces of each specimen were measured. On the failure surfaces of the specimens tested under mode I loading or under mixed mode loading with a phase angle of 10°, a visible layer of adhesive was observed. For these specimens, a Nikon Measurescope 2305 was used to measure the epoxy film thickness. On the other hand, for the specimens tested under mode II loading or under mixed mode loading with a phase angle of 22°, the failure surfaces visually appeared to be... 

Visually, anisotropic ADPs are commonly presented as thermal ellipsoids of a given probability, say, 50% (Figure 6). The atom s centre can be found inside the ellipsoid with this probability, and it has equal probability of reaching the ellipsoid in any direction. The principal axes of the ellipsoid are proportional to the components of (u ) in these directions, but other axes are not. The surface visualizing... 

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