Solutions of non-electrolytes

J. J. Kipling, Adsorption from Solutions of Non-Electrolytes, Academic, New York, 1965. 

Experiments on sufficiently dilute solutions of non-electrolytes yield Henry s laM>, that the vapour pressure of a volatile solute, i.e. its partial pressure in a gas mixture in equilibrium with the solution, is directly proportional to its concentration, expressed in any units (molar concentrations, molality, mole fraction, weight fraction, etc.) because in sufficiently dilute solution these are all proportional to each other. 

Aqueous solutions of non-electrolytes, especially of non-polar solutes, may show the reverse effect and increase the proportions of ice-like components. The non-polar part of organic electrolytes such as soaps and wetting agents may predominate in increasing the ice component. Thus solutes can be divided into two classes structure making and structure breaking, and in some metal-finishing process solutions both types of solute may be added. 

A useful equation for the calculation of liquid phase diffusivities of dilute solutions of non-electrolytes has been given by Wilke and CHANG(I6). This is not dimensionally consistent and therefore the value of the coefficient depends on the units employed. Using SI units ... 

Tables, charts and equations, including 30 aqueous solutions of non-electrolytes...

Because the theory of the liquid state is not nearly so well developed as the kinetic theory of gases, estimation methods for liquid diffusion coefficients are not as reliable as those used for gases. For dilute solutions of non-electrolytes, one widely used correlation is that due to Wilke and Chang[48]... 

Abstract—This paper is an analysis of measurements of the thermodynamic properties of aqueous solutions of non-electrolytes, which has been made in order to establish both the relative strength of different kinds of hydrogen bonds in such solutions and the correlation between bond-strengths and the phase-behaviour of the solutions. The thermodynamic properties are compared with the results of statistical theories of solutions and with the properties of more simple solutions. 

Aqttbdus solutions are the most difficult to understand of all solutions of non-electrolytes and no quantitative theory of their thermodynamic properties has yet been proposed. This paper is a classification of such solutions and an attempt at a qualitative interpretation of their properties in terms of the strength and number of the hydrogen bonds formed between water and the solute. 

Table 1. Aqueous solutions of non-electrolytes in order of increasing solute-water hydrogen bonds...

Figure 15.7. Adsorption of liquid mixtures on charcoal. Chloroform + acetone and benzene + ethanol. The ordinate gives the amount of each individual substance that is adsorbed, the abscissa the mol fraction of chloroform (mixed with acetone) or the mol fraction of benzene (mixed with ethanol). (Data gathered by Kipling. Adsorption from Solutions of Non-Electrolytes, 1965).

An important paper by Kozak et al. (1968) showed how the activity coefficients of water, fu in dilute aqueous solutions of non-electrolytes could be represented as a power series (22) in x2. 

Killman E, Korn M and Bergmann M (1983) In Adsorption from Solutton (RH Ottewill, CH Rochester and A L S Smith, eds), Academic Piess London, p 259 Kipling J J (1965) Adsorption from solution of non electrolytes. Academic Press, London... 

Kipling J.J. (1965) Adsorption from Solutions of Non-electrolytes, Academic Press, London. 

Solutions of non-electrolytes contain neutral molecules or atoms and are nonconductors. Solutions of electrolytes are good conductors due to the presence of anions and cations. The study of electrolytic solutions has shown that electrolytes may be divided into two classes ionophores and ionogens [134]. lonophores (like alkali halides) are ionic in the crystalline state and they exist only as ions in the fused state as well as in dilute solutions. Ionogens (like hydrogen halides) are substances with molecular crystal lattices which form ions in solution only if a suitable reaction occurs with the solvent. Therefore, according to Eq. (2-13), a clear distinction must be made between the ionization step, which produces ion pairs by heterolysis of a covalent bond in ionogens, and the dissociation process, which produces free ions from associated ions [137, 397, 398]. 

This theory of electrolytic dissociation, or the ionic theory, attracted little attention until 1887 when vanT IIoff s classical paper on the theory of solutions was published. The latter author had shown that the ideal gas law equation, with osmotic pressure in place of gas pressure, was applicable to dilute solutions of non-electrolytes, but that electrolytic solutions showed considerable deviations. For example, the osmotic effect, as measured by depression of the freezing point or in other ways, of hydrochloric acid, alkali chlorides and hydroxides was nearly twice as great as the value to be expected from the gas law equation in some cases, e.g., barium hydroxide, and potassium sulfate and oxalate, the discrepancy was even greater. No explanation of these facts was offered by vanT Iloff, but he introduced an empirical factor i into the gas law equation for electrolytic solutions, thus... 

G. Schay. Adsorption of Solutions of Non-Electrolytes, in Surface and Colloid Science, E. MatljeviS, Ed., Wiley-Interscience, Vol. 2 (1969) 155. (Review, thermodynamics, examples, solid-liquid and liquid-liquid.)... 

This proposal represents a distinct advance from the previous state of our knowledge of aqueous solutions of non-electrolytes. The multiplicity of relaxation times may be present in other solutions the frequency ranges studied are inadequate to enable generalizations to be made. 

Until recently, measurements of relaxation times of aqueous solutions of non-electrolytes had not been extended to sufficiently low frequencies to allow the calculation of any but the principal relaxation time of the water. We have seen that this relaxation time is not identical with that of pure water, but relaxation times widely separated from that of pure water have not been reported. 

For solutions of non-electrolytes Guinchant found that the difference between the volume of the solution and the volume of the solvent is independent of the pressure up to 4 atm. 

The viscosities of solutions of non-electrolytes and of electrolytes ( 13.VIII E) have been extensively investigated those of colloidal solutions will be excluded from consideration here. In the case of non-electrolytes, special attention has been given to solutions of cane sugar, which has been proposed as a standardising liquid. The values below are in centipoises (0 01 poise) ... 

Ounkovsky and Volovai found that the viscosity-compositioii plots of binary mixtures of liquids having equal viscosities are not usually linear. Lautie found for dilute solutions of non-electrolytes that the relative viscosity 97/770 naay be represented as a linear or quadratic function of concentration. 

The surface tensions of liquid mixtures and solutions of non-electrolytes show a different relation to composition as compared with electrolyte solutions. Duclaux and Traube found that alcohols, fatty acids, aldehydes, and esters decrease the surface tension of water according to their observations the surface tension of a solution containing x per cent by volume of such a substance is given by ... 

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