Short Volume

Another important factor is the volume of unfilled headspace designed into the bottle. Typically, this is not less than 5% of the total volume for an IPP carbonated product and ideally it is more like 7%. This is because as the product expands during pasteurising, the headspace becomes squeezed, and the smaller the headspace volume, the higher the internal pressure becomes. This could blow the closure off the bottle or, more typically, cause leakage of carbon dioxide or product or both. The loss of product gives rise to uneven fill levels, which could cause consumer concern over apparent low fills or, more seriously, draw attention from trading standards officers because of short volume fills. 

This is not a comprehensive treatise on alkaloids. It is a short volume, focused on some perspectives of the history and diverse biology of a selected group of alkaloids, with an emphasis towards their presence in the materials of Kampo medicines (Japanese Traditional Medicine) in Japan and their toxic potential. It is offered as an introduction, as a stimulant to further inquiry on these amazing natural products. 

Vigani then turned to business. He defined the term chemistry and the concept of principles, which he said were separated out from a primary watery substance. These subtle particles, infinite in number, were not themselves principles but composed, in the second instance, the conventional elements. With this minimal framework established, Vigani spent the remainder of the volume in the analysis of specific substances such as vitriol, nitre and common salt, and the synthesis of other substances, especially medicinal preparations. The short volume closes with descriptions of furnaces and vessels. 

It is not possible at this point to make a completely definitive statement about the sintering mechanism or mechanisms in alumina. However, most of the kinetic data seem to indicate grain boundary diffusion kinetics. The most completely characterized powder (sized Alcoa A-14) followed the grain boundary model very closely after a small, temperature-independent length correction and a short volume kinetics portion. Clustered powders either... 

The objective of any exploration venture is to find new volumes of hydrocarbons at a low cost and in a short period of time. Exploration budgets are in direct competition with acquisition opportunities. If a company spends more money finding oil than it would have had to spend buying the equivalent amount in the market place there is little Incentive to continue exploration. Conversely, a company which manages to find new reserves at low cost has a significant competitive edge since it can afford more exploration, find and develop reservoirs more profitably, and can target and develop smaller prospects. 

Secondly, a short pulse duration is required in order to achieve a good axial resolution, i.e. two signals close together should be detected without interference. The task can be, for example, to detect a small reflector close to the surface or back wall of the test object, as the inspection has to cover the total volume as complete as possible, including the near-surface regions. 

A recent design of the maximum bubble pressure instrument for measurement of dynamic surface tension allows resolution in the millisecond time frame [119, 120]. This was accomplished by increasing the system volume relative to that of the bubble and by using electric and acoustic sensors to track the bubble formation frequency. Miller and co-workers also assessed the hydrodynamic effects arising at short bubble formation times with experiments on very viscous liquids [121]. They proposed a correction procedure to improve reliability at short times. This technique is applicable to the study of surfactant and polymer adsorption from solution [101, 120]. 

The existence of intennolecular interactions is apparent from elementary experimental observations. There must be attractive forces because otherwise condensed phases would not fomi, gases would not liquefy, and liquids would not solidify. There must be short-range repulsive interactions because otherwise solids and liquids could be compressed to much smaller volumes with ease. The kernel of these notions was fomuilated in the late eighteenth century, and Clausius made a clear statement along the lines of this paragraph as early as 1857 [1]. 

Grubmiiller described a method to induce conformational transitions in proteins and derived rate constants for these ([Grubmiiller 1994]). The method employs subsequent modifications of the original potential function based on a principal component analysis of a short MD simulation. It is discussed in more detail in the chapter of Eichinger et al. in this volume. 

The canonical ensemble is the name given to an ensemble for constant temperature, number of particles and volume. For our purposes Jf can be considered the same as the total energy, (p r ), which equals the sum of the kinetic energy (jT(p )) of the system, which depends upon the momenta of the particles, and the potential energy (T (r )), which depends upon tlie positions. The factor N arises from the indistinguishability of the particles and the factor is required to ensure that the partition function is equal to the quantum mechanical result for a particle in a box. A short discussion of some of the key results of statistical mechanics is provided in Appendix 6.1 and further details can be found in standard textbooks. 

Mix 6 2 ml. (6 4 g.) of pure ethyl acetoacetate and 5 ml. of pure phenylhydrazine in an evaporating-basin of about 75 ml. capacity, add 0 5 ml. of acetic acid and then heat the mixture on a briskly boiling water-bath (preferably in a fume-cupboard) for I hour, occasionally stirring the mixture with a short glass rod. Then allow the heavy yellow syrup to cool somewhat, add 30-40 ml. of ether, and stir the mixture vigorously the syrup may now dissolve and the solution shortly afterwards deposit the crystalline pyrazolone, or at lower temperatures the syrup may solidify directly. Note. If the laboratory has been inoculated by previous preparations, the syrup may solidify whilst still on the water-bath in this case the solid product when cold must be chipped out of the basin, and ground in a mortar with the ether.) Now filter the product at the pump, and wash the solid material thoroughly with ether. Recrystallise the product from a small quantity of a mixture of equal volumes of water and ethanol. The methyl-phenyl-pyrazolone is obtained... 

Mix 50 ml. of formalin, containing about 37 per cent, of formaldehyde, with 40 ml. of concentrated ammonia solution (sp. gr. 0- 88) in a 200 ml. round-bottomed flask. Insert a two-holed cork or rubber stopper carrying a capillary tube drawn out at the lower end (as for vacuum distillation) and reaching almost to the bottom of the flask, and also a short outlet tube connected through a filter flask to a water pump. Evaporate the contents of the flask as far as possible on a water bath under reduced pressure. Add a further 40 ml. of concentrated ammonia solution and repeat the evaporation. Attach a reflux condenser to the flask, add sufficient absolute ethyl alcohol (about 100 ml.) in small portions to dissolve most of the residue, heat under reflux for a few minutes and filter the hot alcoholic extract, preferably through a hot water fuimel (all flames in the vicinity must be extinguished). When cold, filter the hexamine, wash it with a little absolute alcohol, and dry in the air. The yield is 10 g. Treat the filtrate with an equal volume of dry ether and cool in ice. A fiulher 2 g. of hexamine is obtained. 

Place 35 ml. of a M solution of aluminium tsopropoxide or 7 g. of solid aluminium tsopropoxide, 450 ml. of dry isopropyl alcohol and 21 g. of purified benzaldehyde (Section IV,115) in a 1 litre round-bottomed flask. Fit a short reflux condenser (no water in the cooling jacket) or better a Hahn condenser (2) (containing a 1 cm. layer of ethyl alcohol in the iimer tube) to the flask and arrange for slow distillation from a water bath at the rate of 3-6 drops per minute. Continue the heating until a negative test for acetone is obtained after 5 minutes of total reflux (6-9 hours) if the volume of the mixture falls below 200 ml. during the reduction, add more isopropyl alcohol. Remove the reflux or Hahn condenser and distil off (Fig. II, 13, 3) most of the isopropyl alcohol under atmospheric pressure from a suitable oil bath. Hydrolyse the... 

Place a mixture of 30 g. of 3 5-dinitrobenzoic acid (Section IV,168 and 33 g. of phosphorus pentachloride in a Claisen flask fit a reflux condenser into the short neck and cork the other neck and side arm (compare Fig. Ill, 31, 1). Heat the mixture in an oil bath at 120-130° for 75 minutes. Allow to cool. Remove the phosphorus oxychloride by distillation under reduced pressure (25°/20 mm.) raise the temperature of the bath to 110°. The residual 3 5-dinitrobenzoyl chloride solidifies on cooling to a brown mass the yield is quantitative. Recrystallise from carbon tetrachloride the yield is 25 g., m.p. 67-68° and this is satisfactory for most purposes. Further recrystallisation from a large volume of light petroleum b.p. 40-60°, gives a perfectly pure product, m.p. 69 -6°. 

Shortly after publication of Dalton s New System of Chemical Philosophy Gay-Tussac announced his observations that volumes of gas which combine with each other and the volume of the combination thus formed are in direct proportion to the sum of the volumes of the constituent gases. The volumetric proportions of Gay-Tussac and Dalton s gravimetric ratios indeed supplement each other, although they themselves contested and rejected each other s concepts. 

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