Secondary lead-acid cells

Bullock KR, Vincent CA (1997) Secondary lead-acid cells. In Vincent CA, Scrosati B (eds) Modem batteries, 2nd edn. University of Chicago Press, Chicago Rand DAJ, Moseley PT, Garche J, Parker CD (2004) Valve-regulated lead-acid batteries. Elsevier, Amsterdam... 

By contrast, secondary batteries may be reused after regenerating their original redox chemicals. This is achieved by passing a current through the battery in the opposite direction to that during normal battery usage. The most common examples of secondary batteries are the lead-acid cell (there is one inside most cars) and nickel-cadmium batteries (commonly called NiCad batteries). 

The lead-acid cell was invented by Plante in 1859, and has remained more-or-less unchanged since Faurd updated it in 1881. The lead-acid cell is the world s most popular choice of secondary battery, meaning it is rechargeable. It delivers an emf of about 2.0 V. Six lead-acid batteries in series produce an emf of 12 V. 

By far the largest sector of the battery industry worldwide is based on the lead-acid aqueous cell whose dominance is due to a combination of low cost, versatility and the excellent reversibility of the electrochemical system, Lead-acid cells have extensive use both as portable power sources for vehicle service and traction, and in stationary applications ranging from small emergency supplies to load levelling systems. In terms of sales, the lead-acid battery occupies over 50% of the entire primary and secondary market, with an estimated value of 100 billion per annum before retail mark-up. 

Current collector — In the battery discipline, a good electron conductor support designed to transfer electrons from the external circuit to the active materials of the cell. Current collectors are usually metal foils or nets that are inert under the operational chemical and electrochemical conditions. In some cases carbon cloth is also used. In secondary - lead-acid batteries the chemical nature of the current collectors (plates, grids) is particularly imperative, as it influences the self-discharge and the performance under overcharge and discharge conditions. Frequently, current collectors have also the important role of imparting mechanical stability to the electrodes. 

Batteries, Electric (Lead-Acid Storage)"in ECT 1st ed, Vol. 2, pp. 340—360, by Joseph A. Orsino and Thomas C. Lynes, National Lead Company "Secondary Cells, Lead—Acid" under "Batteries and Electric Cells, Secondary" in ECT 2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 249—271, by Joseph A. Orsino, National Lead Company "Batteries and Electric Cells, Secondary (Lead—Acid)" in ECT 3rd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 640—663, by James B. Doe, ESB Technology Company. 

A lead-acid cell is a secondary cell. Each cell delivers about 2V, and when six cells are connected in series a 12 V battery is formed. 

Of the conventional secondary systems, the nickel-iron and the vented pocket-type nickel-cadmium batteries are best with regard to cycle life and total lifetime. The nickel-hydrogen battery developed mainly for aerospace applications, has demonstrated very long cycle life under shallow depth of discharge. The lead-acid batteries do not match the performance of the best alkaline batteries. The pasted cells have the shortest life of the lead-acid cells the best cycle life is obtained with the tubular design, and the Plante design has the best lifetime. 

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