Schematic representation of measurement

Figure 2 Schematic representation of measurement of induction period in stabilized polypropylene. 

Figure 4 Schematic representation of measurement systems for the incident angle and the time dependences of reflected intensity in guided mode thin films.

Figure 2 (a) Schematic representation of measuring cells in photoconductivity experiments (b) typical experimental arrangement for transient photoconductivity studies (TOF) (R is the load resistance) (c) 7ph versus time transient as a result of the drifting charge in the external circuit and registered by the scope. 

Schematic representation of measurements of potentials along a path from anode to cathode area on a corrod ing su rface...

Fig. 2.36 Schematic representation of measuring apparatus for reaction with reflux of a boiling component of reaction mixture...

Figure Bl.20.9. Schematic representation of DLVO-type forces measured between two mica surfaces in aqueous solutions of KNO3 or KCl at various concentrations. The inset reveals the existence of oscillatory and monotonic structural forces, of which the latter clearly depend on the salt concentration. Reproduced with pennission from [94].

The principle of the measurement is described with the help of Fig. 2-7 [50]. Potential measurement is not appropriate in pipelines due to defective connections or too distant connections and low accuracy. Measurements of potential difference are more effective. Figure 3-24 contains information on the details in the neighborhood of a local anode the positions of the cathodes and reference electrodes (Fig. 3-24a), a schematic representation of the potential variation (Fig. 3-24b), and the derived values (Fig. 3-24c). Figure 2-8 should be referred to in case of possible difficulties in interpreting the potential distribution and sign. The electrical potentials of the pipeline and the reference electrodes are designated by... 

The primary reference method used for measuring carbon monoxide in the United States is based on nondispersive infrared (NDIR) photometry (1, 2). The principle involved is the preferential absorption of infrared radiation by carbon monoxide. Figure 14-1 is a schematic representation of an NDIR analyzer. The analyzer has a hot filament source of infrared radiation, a chopper, a sample cell, reference cell, and a detector. The reference cell is filled with a non-infrared-absorbing gas, and the sample cell is continuously flushed with ambient air containing an unknown amount of CO. The detector cell is divided into two compartments by a flexible membrane, with each compartment filled with CO. Movement of the membrane causes a change in electrical capacitance in a control circuit whose signal is processed and fed to a recorder. 

A schematic representation of a PR apparatus is shown in Figure 2. In PR a pump beam (laser or other light source) chopped at frequency 2 creates photo-injected electron-hole pairs that modulate the built-in electric field of the semiconductor. The photon energy of the pump beam must be larger than the lowest energy gap of the material. A typical pump beam for measurements at or below room temperature is a 5-mW He-Ne laser. (At elevated temperatures a more powerful pump must be employed.)... 

The electrical Itw-pressure impactor (ELPl) has been developed, using the Berner-type multijet low-pressure impactor stages. The cut sizes of the seven channel system range from 0.030 to 1.0 pm. Real-time measurements can be achieved due to the instrument s fast time response. The schematic representation of the impactor construction is shown in Fig 13.44. 

Fig. 24 Schematic representation of the recording of an absorbance scan. — M = measuring slit...

Fig. 5. Schematic representation of the measured CNT films. The effective medium is the result of tubes dispersed in an insulating host (glassy graphite).

According to Eq. (4-62), when woTo < 1, T, is proportional to 1/Tc, whereas when woTc 1, Ti is proportional to Tc. When Tc = Wo, Tj has its minimum value. Figure 4-7 is a schematic representation of the relationship between T and Tc. The physical meaning of this relationship is that coupling between the spin system and the lattice is most efficient when the resonance frequency and the frequency of molecular motion are equal. Tc can be measured by studying the dependence of Ti on wq (by varying the field strength). For small molecules in solution Tc is commonly 10 to 10 s. 

Second. The interpretation of the results of dynamic measurements is far from being obvious. Figure 5 gives a schematic representation of some typical results of measuring frequency dependence of the modulus G (m) for compositions with different concen-... 

Figure 7.10 Schematic representation of the apparatus for measuring osmotic pressure. The flow of solvent through the semipermeable membrane is followed by observing the movement of the meniscus of the flow indicator. The osmotic pressure II is the pressure that must be applied to the solution to prevent the flow.

In assembling cells for making thermodynamic measurements, one should try not to combine half-cells in a manner that results in a junction potential. Figure 9.7 is a schematic representation of the Daniell cell, which is one with a junction potential. The half-cell reactions are... 

Figure 5.18. Schematic representation of the density of states N(E) in the conduction band and of the definitions of work function d>, chemical potential of electrons p, electrochemical potential of electrons or Fermi level p, surface potential x> Galvani (or inner) potential

Fig. 7— Schematic representation of experiment rig [5,18], (a) measuring part, (b) whole structure.

Schematic representation of an apparatus that measures the absorption spectrum of a gaseous element. The gas in the tube absorbs light at specific wavelengths, called lines, so the intensity of transmitted light is low at these particular wavelengths.

Fig 3 An extremely simplified and schematic representation of how three broad classes of polymer are arranged in the onion cell wall (taken from McCann and Roberts 1991 (4)). Although simplistic, the sizes and spacings of the polymers are based on direct measurements of native walls (1) and are drawn to scale. Scale bar represents 50nm. 

Figure 12. Schematic representation of the setup for single particle measurements by electrostatic trapping (ET). Pt denotes two freestanding Pt electrodes (dashed region). A ligand-stabilized Pd cluster is polarized by the applied voltage and attracted to the gap between the Pt electrodes. (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [29], 1997, American Institute of Physics.)...

The chemical compositions of the isolated Au SR clusters were investigated by mass spectrometry [15,16,18, 22,32-35]. TEM was used to confirm that the species detected by the mass spectrometer represents the clusters in the sample. Figure 3a is a schematic representation of the top view of the mass spectrometer, which consists of five stages of differentially pumped vacuum chambers. The apparatus accommodates two t5 pes of ion sources, electrospray ionization (ESI) and laser-desorption ionization (EDI), and a time-of-flight (TOE) mass spectrometer with a reflectron. Details of the apparatus and the measurement protocols are described below. 

FIG. 5. Schematic representation of the ASTER deposition system. Indicated are (I) load lock. (2) plasma reactor for intrinsic layers. (3) plasma reactor for />-type layers. (4) plasma reactor for t -type layers, (5) metal-evaporation chamber (see text). (6) central transport chamber. (7) robot arm. (8) reaction chamber, (9) gate valve, (10) gas supply. (11) bypass. (12) measuring devices, and (13) tur-bomolecular pump. 

Figure 7.16 Schematic representation of off-line SFC-FTIR. After deposition of the eluites on to a moving ZnSe substrate the window is moved to the focus of a stand-alone FTIR microscope, where the spectmm of each spot is measured with the plate stationary. After Griffiths et al. [374]. Reprinted from P.R. Griffiths et al., in Hyphenated Techniques in Supercritical Fluid Chromatography and Extraction (K. Jinno, ed.), pp. 83-101, Copyright (1992), with permission from Elsevier...

Scheme 6 a Incorporation of a silyl-spaced dimer into DNA, and treatment of the DNA strand with fluoride furnished DNA strand containing a dimer-unit with an open backbone. b Schematic representation of the light (ho) induced excess electron transfer (ET) from the reduced flavin to the dimer, followed by cycloreversion (CR). c The five DNA duplexes 13-17 containing the flavin donor and the dimer acceptor at increasing distances, together with the measured repair yields after irradiation for 1 min... 

Figure 65-1 shows a schematic representation of the F-test for linearity. Note that there are some similarities to the Durbin-Watson test. The key difference between this test and the Durbin-Watson test is that in order to use the F-test as a test for (non) linearity, you must have measured many repeat samples at each value of the analyte. The variabilities of the readings for each sample are pooled, providing an estimate of the within-sample variance. This is indicated by the label Operative difference for denominator . By Analysis of Variance, we know that the total variation of residuals around the calibration line is the sum of the within-sample variance (52within) plus the variance of the means around the calibration line. Now, if the residuals are truly random, unbiased, and in particular the model is linear, then we know that the means for each sample will cluster... 

Fig. 3.6 The relative intensity of dynamic light scattering vs. the diameter of scattering particles for a solution with 1 wt.% bovine serum albumin (1) and the same solution after addition of 3 wt.% of THEOS (2). Before the measurements, the solutions were left at ambient temperature for a week. The drawings are a schematic representation of a protein macromolecule before and after the treatment by silica precursor.

A schematic representation of the instrumentation used in the in s/fu FT1R technique is shown in Figure 2.49. As can be seen from the figure, the instrumentation is much simpler than that required to perform EMIRS or PM-IRRAS measurements. 

Fig. 1 Schematic representation of the Langmuir film balance used for the measurement of pressure-area monolayer film properties. Reprinted with permission from Arnett et al., 1989. Copyright 1989 American Chemical Society.

Fig. 6 Schematic representation of an Hg-drop LAJ incorporating SAMs of organic molecules of (a) alkanethiols, (b) oligophenylene thiols and (c) benzylic derivatives of oligophenylene thiols of different length formed on an Ag electrode, (d) Semi-logarithmic plot of measured current at applied bias I 0.5 V vs electrode gap flowing through the a, b, c interfaces...

Fig. 13 Schematic representation of a photo-active molecular junction containing DAE-based SAM sandwiched between a semitransparent Au bottom electrode and an SAM/Hg-drop top electrode. The electrical response of the junction is measured upon irradiation at different wavelengths through the semitransparent bottom electrode...

Fig. 34. Schematic representation of the experimental set-up for propagation loss measurement.

Figure 2. Schematic representation of the experimental apparatus used for measurement of the 7t-A curves of a thin film of PhDA2-8 molecules at the air/water interface.

FIG. 23-44 Schematic representation of time-averaged distribution and spread for a continuous plume. and o2 are the statistical measures of crosswind and vertical dimensions 4.3oy is the width corresponding to a concentration 0.1 of the central value when the distribution is of gaussian form (a corresponding cloud height is 2.15o2). (Redrawn from Pasquill and Smith, Atmospheric Diffusion, 3d ed., Ellis Norwood Limited, Chichester, U.K, 1983). 

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