Salmonella distribution

Haley BJ, Cole DJ, Lipp EK (2009) Distribution, diversity and seasonality of waterborne Salmonellae in antral watershed. Appl Environ Microbiol 75 1248-1255... 

Events involving deliberate or accidental distribution of bacterial pathogens into our everyday environment have clearly defined the need for a sensitive, specific, and rapid method of bacterial detection. Bioterrorism was first introduced in the United States in 1984 with the Salmonella typhimurium attack in The Dalles, Oregon, by a cult group attempting to affect a local election.1 As a result of this act 751 people contracted salmonellosis, which totally overwhelmed the hospitals and medical clinics with patients. Later our society became keenly aware of the potential of bioterrorism during the last four months of 2001 when Bacillus anthracis (anthrax) spores were sent through the US mail in an envelope to several locations. These events had... 

Bacteria that Produce Histidine Decarboxylase. Early studies demonstrated that histidine decarboxylase is widely distributed in the genera Escherichia, Salmonella, Clostridium, Bacillus and Lactobacillus (24). Evidence for the enzyme in E, coli included the finding by Gale (7) that 14 of 155 cultures possessed histidine decarboxylase. A study by Hanke and Koessler (25) found that six of 20 coliform cultures synthesized the enzyme. Havelka (26) found that 71.4% of all Enterobacteriacae isolated from imported marine fish produced histamine. Eggerth (27) found 40 strains of bacteria of intestinal origin capable of decarboxylating histidine. Rodwell (11) found various... 

Hora, R., Kumar, M., Garcia, L., Schumacher, B., Odumeru, J., and Warriner, K. (2005). Spatial distribution of Salmonella, Escherichia coli 0157 H7, and other bacterial populations in commercial and laboratory-scale sprouting mung bean beds. J. Food Prot. 68, 2510-2518. 

As a consequence, the importing and manufacturing companies have established comprehensive and efficient examination procedures for raw material acceptance. The major problem in this relation is the fact that microorganisms as well as other contaminants normally are not homogenously distributed within the product. For that reason detailed sampling plans have been developed the best known one is the Foster plan [14], which is specialised for salmonella detection. 

Figure 9. Distribution of halogenated hydrocarbons and mutagenic activity in HPLC fractions of a drinking water concentrate (neutral fraction). HPLC fractions obtained by linear-gradient HPLC analysis (H2O-C2H3N) were tested for mutagenic activity in the Salmonella mutagenicity test (TA98) and assayed for halogenated hydrocarbon content as described in Materials...

Figure 3. Proposed structurefor Salmonella lipid A. See Keyfor Figure I, and OH-14, 3-hydroxytetradecanoic acid 12, 14, 16, dodeca-, tetradeca-, hexadecanoic acid. The distribution of tetradecanoic addon the two 3-hydroxytetradecanoic acids, as well as the distribution and positions of the two ester-bound 3-hydroxytetradecanoic acids, is not...

A similar distribution of fatty acids has also been detected in lipid A of other bacteria (Fig. 5). Thus, in Fusobacterium nucleatum, 2 moles of (R)-3-OH-14 0 are ester-bound, one of which is 3-O-acylated by 14 0. In amide linkage, (R)-3-0(14 0)-16 0 is present. In Vibrio cholerae, a dimer of (R)-3-OH-12 0 is bound as an ester while (R)-3-0-(14 0)-14 0 and (R)-3-0-(16 0)-14 0 are amide-linked. The lipid A component of Chromobacterium violaceum possesses 2 moles of (R)-3-OH-10 0 in ester linkage. The amide-bound acyl groups are represented by (R)-3-0H-12 0 residues which are 3-0-acylated by 12 0 and (S)-2-OH-12 0. In P. mirabilis, 3-0H-14 0 is, like in Salmonella, ester-and amide-bound. In this case, however, exclusively 14 0 substitutes the 3-hydroxyl groups of both 0- and N-linked 3-OH-14 0. 

Other examples of accidental contamination demonstrate the potential size of outbreaks from contamination closer to the source of production or distribution. In 1993, an estimated 403,000 Milwaukee, Wisconsin, residents developed diarrhea due to Cryptosporidia contamination of the municipal drinking water system. Four thousand people required hospitalization and authorities attributed cryptosporidio-sis as the underlying or contributing cause of death for 54 Milwaukee residents (68). In 1994, cross contamination of ice cream premix transported in a truck that had carried liquid, unpasteurized eggs affected 224,000 individuals in 41 states with Salmonella enteritidis (67). In 2000, E. coli 0157 H7 contamination of the Walkerton, Ontario municipal water supply affected over 2,000 residents and caused seven deaths (68). 

Madsen ES, Nielsen PA, Pedersen JC. 1982. The distribution and origin of mutagens in airborne particulates, detected by the Salmonella typhimurium microsome assay in relation to levels of lead, vanadium and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Sci Total Environ 24 13-25. 

The use of different laboratories can give rise to results that are not comparable. Van Schothorst et al. [31] showed that despite the use of a carefully described standard method for the isolation of Salmonella from minced meat, the results from all laboratories were not the same. Differences between laboratories became especially apparent when samples were used with an even distribution of low numbers of Salmonella and high numbers of competitive flora. In this latter case four laboratories examined 100 artificially contaminated samples. The total number of samples found to be positive for Salmonella varied from 43 to 93. The differences were attributed to laboratory-associated factors such as differences in incubators, media preparation, time available to carry out the work, interruptions etc. When the analysis was carried out by the same workers, but in a single laboratory (repeatability), there were small (not significant) differences in the results. These differences were much smaller than when the analyses were carried out in different laboratories (reproducibility). The small differences were ascribed to the so-called human factor, that is interest, skill, dexterity etc. 

Preveutiou of salmouella iufectiou, as a bacterial food borne disease, is au issue of public health measures for effective coutrol of food safety, iucludiug food production, processing, distribution, storage and food preparation. Primary prevention is the key strategy to control the incidence of salmonella infection and reduce morbidity and mortality. 

Ochman H, Groisman EA Distribution of pathogenicity islands in Salmonella spp. Infect Immun 1996 64 5410-5412. 

Institut Pasteur de Lille (1992b) Recherche de mutagenicite sur Salmonella typhimurium His selon la technique de BN Ames. Report IPL-R 920506 for Total Raffinage Distribution, 25 May 1992... 

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