Reward, expectation

The fact that some DA neurons encode expectancy of reward is especially provocative, as it implies that dysfunctions within these circuits may give rise to erroneous computations of reward expectancy, which may in turn relate to the aberrant drug cravings observed so commonly in drug addiction. Satisfying such aberrant neural expectancies, then, may be a necessary component of any successful pharmacotherapy for addiction. 

Hollerman, Jeffrey R., Leon Tremblay, and Wolfram Schultz. 1998. "Influence of Reward Expectation on Behavior-Related Neuronal Activity in Primate Striatum." Journal of Neurophysiology 80 947-63. 

Bradberry CW, Le DTP, Rubino SR (2003) Neurochemical impact of cocaine reward expectation in rhesus monkeys. In Kehr J, Fuxe K, Ungerstedt U, Svensson TI (Eds.), Monitoring molecules in Neuroscience, pp. 112-114. Karolinska Univ. Press, Stockholm. 

Developments along these three lines can be expected to greatly extend the yet limited utility of catalysis by hard Lewis acids in aqueous media. The work described in this thesis has demonstrated drat these efforts can be rewarded by increased in rate and most importantly, enantioselectivity. 

The design or substantial modification of a new plant or process, its subsequent constmction, and start-up represent a tremendous investment of time and money. The rewards are great if a significant improvement is realized the risks are also great if a costiy commercial plant fails to produce as expected. To reduce the degree of risk, lengthy and expensive research programs are often undertaken. 

Economic evaluation is an assessment of the probable benefit or reward of a proposed course of action, relative to other choices. Although the benefit usually takes the form of a financial return, in environmental management, transportation (qv), health care, and other social areas, the benefit may be a social gain instead. Some method is then developed to translate the social gain into a monetary equivalent. The discussion herein is limited to the financial return expected from some type of production or service activity. 

Essence of Profitability. If an investor purchases a computer in the morning and seUs it in the afternoon for a larger sum, then a return on the investment is realized. This is profit a reward for the effort (investment) made. A somewhat more difficult situation is the case of three choices having different purchase costs and expected selling prices ... 

Numerical Measures of Risk Without risk and the reward for successfully accepting risk, there would be no business activity. In estimating the probabilities of attaining various levels of net present value (NPV) and discounted-cash-flow rate of return (DCFRR), there was a spread in the possible values of (NPV) and (DCFRR). A number of methods have been suggested for assessing risks and rewards to be expected from projects. 

We expect reward to be pleasurable and it is assessed in animals by their willingness to seek and approach something, such as a lever linked to either food dispensing or brain... 

Perform periodic unannounced audits of operator performance by submitting blind samples of known composition. Comparison of observed vs. expected results may reveal bias due to differences in methodology or flaws in technique. The results of the tests should not be made the basis of punishment or reward. 

A formal comparison between a system of grants or rewards and that of patents was presented recently by Shavell and Ypersele.22 In their article they present a review of the two systems and the theoretical positions of each of them. They state that under the system of grants, insofar as there would be no welfare loss as a result of monopoly prices, the only deviation from optimal allocation would be in relation to the incentive to invest in research. This incentive can be ambivalent. If the social or aggregate surplus is greater than the reward or grant there will be insufficient incentives, and vice versa. Either of these two possibilities may occur, as the optimal reward is equal to the expected surplus under different demand curves. 

In conclusion, NMR methodologies have already proven successful within meat science with applications in many different areas. However, many unexplored areas still exist where the potential of NMR can be expected to reveal useful and valuable information. The inspiration that can be obtained from NMR studies within other disciplines, e.g., medical areas, material science, physical/chemical sciences and food science in general, should be rewarded with great attention in future in order to continue development of the use of NMR in meat science. 

The association of inputs with housing values (which accrue to the homeowner as well as the neighborhood more generally), suggests some obvious instrumental motivations not only for chemical application but for the positive association between such practices and community values. As most realtors will tell you, lawn upkeep is a relatively inexpensive investment for maintaining property values. In follow-up discussions, some lawn owners explicitly told us that their lawn care inputs were investments in their homes. Indeed, people with higher incomes and expensive homes have much more capital-in the form of an existing manicured lawn-to protect with chemical applications. Despite any expectation of social reward for environmentally protective behavior, homeowners are actually rewarded for environmentally detrimental behavior. 

Above all, we were expected to get along with each other and stay out of the newspapers. If someone needed something he didn t already have, he was to let the right people know and they would do their best to get it for him. It might take a while, but quiet patience was usually rewarded. 

There is evidence that nicotine also stimulates the DA projections to the dorsal striatum (BenweU and Balfour 1997 Quick 2004). To date, relatively few studies have sought to directly link this response to the drug with behavioural changes associated with dependence. Nevertheless, a number of studies have implicated these projections in the responses to rewarding stimuli, particularly in expectation of reward (Schultz 2006). A failure to deliver an anticipated reinforcer results in transient reduction in the activity of these neurones. Rice and Cragg (2004) have reported that... 

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