Reptiles snakes

Wurm, m. worm vermin reptile, snake vermiform process. 

For the littoral zone, tadpoles, frogs, salamanders and other amphibians are also typical, and there may be some reptiles (snakes and tortoises). 

Endothermic animals can achieve and sustain levels of activity even when temperatures plummet or vary widely. This can be a huge advantage over ectothermy, especially m northern latitudes, at night, or during the winter. In colder climates, an ectothermic predator such as a snake will tend to be more sluggish and less successful than an endothermic predator. There are no reptiles or insects in the polar regions. 

Fig. 2.12 Vomeronasal complex Reptiles, TS Snake, (a) Drawing of Amphibolurus muricatus. skeletal elements in yellow (from Broom, 1895). (b) Generalised diagram of epithelial types L = lateral and M= medial (from Rehorek, 1998). (c) VNC, Primitive mammal junction of vomeronasal duct (VNd), with naso-palatine (Stenson s) duct (N-Pd) in Spiny Anteater (Short-nosed Echidna) brown = skeletal elements — septal and para-septal cartilages (from Broom, 1895).

Fig. 2.19 Central pathways and nuclei, (a) Frog AOS Pl/Pm = lateral and medial pallium EP = post, olfactory eminence and nSm = medial Septal nucleus (from Kratskin, 1995). Reptiles and mammals-—afferent pathways from AOB to amygdala nuclei (Cortical C3 and Medial M), with tertiary connections to other central nuclei in hypothalamus (MPOA, VMH and PMN) (from Johnston, 2000). (b) Snake AOS Second-order projection of accessory fibres nAOT - nucleus of AOT AM = anterior amygdala and nSph = nucleus Sphericus. (c) Mammal AOS Projection sites of vomeronasal fibres in cortex and hypothalamus (from Johnston, 1998).

Santos X, Llorente GA (2009) Decline of a common reptile case study of the viperine snake Natrix maura in a Mediterranean wetland. Acta Herpetol 4 161-169... 

Chlordane residue data for amphibians and reptiles are extremely limited. Maximum concentrations of chlordane isomers did not exceed 70 pg/kg FW of oxychlordane in eggs of the American crocodile, Crocodylus acutus, or 250 pg/kg FW in carcass of the common garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis (Table 13.2). However, California newts, Tarichia torosa, taken near a lake treated with 10 pg/L technical chlordane had greatly elevated chlordane residues in liver and comparatively low concentrations in carcass, stomach, and stomach contents. After 14 days, livers contained about 34 mg/kg total chlordanes lipid weight — about 19% chlordanes, 9% nonachlors, and 6% chlor-denes (Albright et al. 1980). After 2.8 years, 98% of the total chlordanes was lost. 7ra .v-nonachlor was the most persistent component in newt liver, accounting for up to 55% of the total chlordanes in specimens collected 2.8 years after application (Table 13.2) (Albright et al. 1980). 

Reptiles Western ribbon snake, Thamnophis proximus Gl tract 0.12 mg/kg whole-body FW, less skin and 3... 

The vomeronasal system, also known as the accessory olfactory system, consists of chemoreceptors, organized into the VNO, the vomeronasal nerve, its terminal, the accessory olfactory bulb, and more central pathways. First described by Jacobson in 1811, the VNO has been studied intensely. We now know how stimuli reach it and what behaviors it mediates. The VNO occurs in amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. Among mammals, it is best developed in marsupials and monotremes. In birds it only appears during embryogenesis. The VNO and its function are best known for squamate reptiles, particularly snakes, and rodents and ungulates among the mammals. 

Reptiles Garter snakes Thamnophis Feeding Response to earthworm Halpern eta/., 1985... 

Reptiles like the snake and the lizard cannot regulate their body temperature, and adopt the temperature of their environment (i.e., they are poikilother-mic) - so they cannot survive extremes which put their body cells, and particularly their enzyme systems, at risk. By contrast, we can shiver or sweat to increase or reduce our core temperature, and so human beings can function effectively in a much wider range of temperature than can reptiles. What has this to do with drugs and other ingested chemicals In just the same way as we mammals have evolved to be relatively independent of environmental temperature so we also have developed a system of screening and filtering out chemical substances that present themselves to us in our diet and from other sources. 

Reptiles Seveso, Italy, 1978 Snakes, various spp. Liver 2700 FW 1... 

Animals often use toxins to immobilise their prey, often insects. Wasps, bees, spiders, mites, scorpions, snakes and other reptiles are all capable of producing potent toxins many of which are insect specific. There is much work in progress around the world examining the opportunities that exist to exploit these toxins to produce new insecticides. This is usually undertaken in two different ways. The first is to determine the mode of action of the natural toxin and to use this novel effect to find synthetic compounds with insecticidal activity in biochemical screens. The second is to attempt to synthesise compounds with the same structural features of the natural toxin and hence with the same mode of action but with better stability following application. The types of compounds that are known are discussed by Blagbrough and Moya13 but none has been commercialised to date. 

Reptiles are divided into four orders. The order Crocodylia includes crocodiles, alligators, and their relatives. The order Testudines includes the turdes and tortoises. The order Rhynchocephalia is represented by only two species, the tuataras of New Zealand. The largest order by far is the Squamata, which has over 7000 species of lizards, snakes, and their relatives. 

Hawgood, B., Bon, C. (1991). Snake venom presynaptic toxins. In Handbook of Natural Toxins (A.T. Tu, ed.), Vol. 5, Reptile Venoms and Toxins, pp. 3-52. Marcel Dekker, New York. 

Metamorphosis has also been extensively studied in amphibians, a class of vertebrates which includes frogs, toads, and salamanders. Amphibian means dual (amphi ) life form (-bian) and refers to the typical life history of these animals, in which an aquatic larva metamorphoses into a terrestrial adult. The reptiles, such as turtles, lizards, and snakes, is another class of vertebrates whose species superficially resemble adult amphibians, but do not undergo metamorphosis. 

The south, which constitutes the well-watered zone, is mostly covered with tropiceil forests. In the plateau and savanna regions there are grasslcinds with hardy tress. Some of the swamps and rain forest zones have many reptiles and snakes but large animals have actually disappecired from Icirgely populated areas. 

This article provides an overview of some of the more commonly encountered terrestrial animals that produce toxins, often referred to as venoms, with a focus on spiders, snakes, and other reptiles. 

The repeated words fear and snake and the synonym reptile help tie one sentence to another so that the reader may follow the ideas easily. 

Reptiles are not usually associated with marine environments. In fact, of the 6,000 known species of reptiles, only about 1 percent inhabits the sea. Members of this select group include lizards, crocodiles, turtles, and snakes. Each of these organisms shares many of the same anatomical structures that are found in all reptiles They are cold-blooded, air-breathing, scaled animals that reproduce by internal fertilization. Yet, to live in salt water, this subgroup has evolved some special adaptations not seen in terrestrial reptiles. 

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