Reproductive interference

Figure 5. Schematic representation of unidirectional and bidirectional reproductive interference resulting from release of a common hormonal product(s) (bold, straight arrows) by females. Unidirectional interference The prod-uct(s) is used as a pheromone only by the responding species, in which the male receiver responds appropriately to the conspecific female (long, curved arrow) but inappropriately to the heterospecific female (short, curved arrow). Bidirectional interference Males of both responding species respond inappropriately to heterospecific females.

Obviously, these simple scenarios depict only a few of the most basic aspects of interspecific interference resulting from the use of nonspecific hormonal products and pheromones, and ignore others of potentially equal importance. Interference is unlikely to be either quantitatively or qualitatively symmetrical, even for closely related species using the same pheromone for the same function. In addition, pressures to reduce interference will vary enormously with life history characteristics e.g. the costs of interference for an iteroparous male (spawns many times in a season e.g. goldfish) may be negligible, whereas interference may eliminate reproductive success of a semelparous female (egg development is synchronous spawns but once a season or lifetime e.g. Pacific salmon) that responds to heterospecific odor. In any situation where selection leads to species-specific pheromonal function, we expect this will be achieved by evolution of an obligate, multiple-component pheromone system. As in insects, for which reproductive interference is important, these systems may contain novel components and/or use highly specific blends (Sorensen et al., 1998). 

Possible Role of Sex Peptides in Reproductive Interference (Satyrization)... 

There is some evidence from a number of animal species that phytoestrogen consumption can interfere with reproductive development and function. ... 

This interference prevents cell reproduction, leading to death of the bacteria. 

Antiviral drugp interfere with viral reproduction by altering DNA synthesis. These drug are used in the treatment of herpes simplex infections of the eye, treatment in immunocompromised patients with cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis, and for the prevention of CMV retinitis in patients undergoing transplant. 

In a three-generation reproduction study with DOSS on rats [76] it was shown that administering DOSS in the diet of three successive generations of rats at levels of 0.5% and 1.0% caused a reduction in body weight for parental males in all generations and for FI and F2 females. However, the reduced body weight did not interfere with development of normal reproductive performance. 

Cheshenko, K., Pakdel, R, and Segner, H. et al. (2008). Interference of endocrine disrupting chemicals with aromatase CYP19 expression or activity, and consequences for reproduction of teleost fish. General and Comparative Endocrinology 155, 31-62. 

Bacteria, viruses, and rickettsiae have similar symptom progressions in that exposure is followed by a period of reproductive growth (often nonsympto-matic) in the body. As their numbers increase, they often eventually overcome the immune system. Many produce toxins that interfere with bodily functions. Purified toxins such as botulinum toxin (produced by the Clostridium botulinum bacteria) act in a similar manner to chemical agents since, as complex chemical compounds, they do not reproduce but immediately interfere with bodily functions. However, most toxins are not absorbed through the skin, as... 

A full set of studies normally includes short-term and long-term animal studies on chronic effects and potential carcinogenicity, studies on reproductive and developmental toxicity, genotoxicity, kinetics and metabolism, pharmacological properties and special studies depending on the characteristics of the substance and observation in the standard set of studies. Human clinical studies may be necessary for substances which are metabolised and may interfere with functions of the human body. 

Exercise is not without risks these include sudden cardiac death, hyperthermia, hypothermia, hypoglycaemia, hypo-natraemia, a reduction in the effectiveness of the immune system, overuse injury and interference in the reproductive system in females. Whether severe physical activity affects the reproductive system in males is sometimes discussed but these are no reports in the scientific literature. 

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