Recharge estimation

Gaye C. B. and Edmunds W. M. (1996) Groundwater recharge estimation using chloride, stable isotopes and tritium profiles in the sands of northwest Senegal. Environ. Geol. 27, 246-251. 

The primary manganese dioxide-Zn battery industry still controls the small-battery market. The ratio between batteries and rechargeable batteries is still about 10 1, and although the global battery market will nearly double by the year 2001, this ratio will stay practically the same, because the primary market is estimated to grow by 70 percent (actually stealing only 2-3 percent from the primary market). 

Payer80 states that the UNSAT-H model was developed to assess the water dynamics of arid sites and, in particular, estimate recharge fluxes for scenarios pertinent to waste disposal facilities. It addresses soil-water infiltration, redistribution, evaporation, plant transpiration, deep drainage, and soil heat flow as one-dimensional processes. The UNSAT-H model simulates water flow using the Richards equation, water vapor diffusion using Fick s law, and sensible heat flow using the Fourier equation. 

Battery manufacturers are producing more rechargeable batteries each year. The National Electrical Manufacturers Association has estimated that the U.S. demand for rechargeable batteries is growing twice as fast as the demand for nonrechargeable batteries. 

The recoverability of hydrocarbon from the subsurface refers to the amount of mobile hydrocarbon available. Hydrocarbon that is retained in the unsaturated zone is not typically recoverable by conventional means. Additional amounts of hydrocarbon that are unrecoverable by conventional methods include the immobile hydrocarbons associated with the water table capillary zone. Residual hydrocarbon is pellicular or insular, and is retained in the aquifer matrix. With respect to recoverability, residual hydrocarbon entrapment can result in volume estimate discrepancies as well as decreases in recovery efficiency. With increasing water saturation, such as when the water table rises via recharge or product removal, hydrocarbons essentially become occluded by a continuous water phase. This results in a reduction of LNAPL and product thickness as measured in the well at constant volume. When water saturation is decreased by lowering the water table (as during recovery operations), trapped hydrocarbons can remobilize, leading to increased recoverability. 

There is not too much information available on the battery separator market in the literature. It is estimated that about 30% of the rechargeable lithium battery market or 1.5 billion is the size of the battery materials or components market. Battery separators for lithium batteries are about a 330 million market within the total battery components market. ° Recently, the Freedonia Group has reported that the U.S. demand for battery separators will increase to 410 million in 2007 from 237 million in 1977 and 300 million in 2002, respectively. ... 

Batteries are divided into primary batteries (used only once) and secondary batteries (rechargeable). The estimated 1989 U.S. market was 2.3 billion for primary... 

The convenience of this method for carrying out a number of consecutive estimations is obvious the spirals can be quickly removed, treated and replaced, and the short tube can be quickly recharged and connected. Before starting a second combustion, however, the boat and the reduced... 

Figure 4.8 shows an example of the estimation of paleotemperature based on noble gas measurements in the groundwater of some aquifers in Texas (State et al., 1992). Paleotemperatures estimated from the noble gas concentration shows a large drop (about 5.2°C) at the distance 30km away from the recharge area [Figure 4.8(c)], which corresponds to an age between 12,000 and 17,000 years, close to the last glacial maximum (about 18,000 years ago). 

The rainwater of Bermuda is in near equilibrium with atmospheric Pc02 = 10-3.5 atm., and contains small amounts of sea salt (0.07 wt. % seawater). The rainfall of 147 cm y1 is seasonally distributed. The rain enters the saturated zone by two main paths direct rainfall on marshes and ponds, and percolation downward from the vadose zone as vadose seepage and flow through rocks during times of soil water excess (Vacher, 1978). Total annual recharge of the saturated zone is about 40 cm y-1 (Vacher and Ayers, 1980). The residence time of the groundwater has been calculated as 6.5 years, and the average age of the sampled water as 4 years (Vacher et al., 1989). Such estimates are necessary for calculations of carbonate mineral stabilization rates, as shown in a later section. 

Vacher, H.L. and Ayers, J.F. (1980) Hydrology of small oceanic islands — utility of an estimate of recharge inferred from the chloride concentration of the freshwater lenses. Jour. Hydrol. 45, 21-37. 

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