Radionuclides in milk

Lengemann, F. W., Wentworth, R. A. and Comar, C. L. 1974. Physiological and biochemical aspects of the accumulation of contaminant radionuclides in milk. In Lactation A Comprehensive Treatise, Vol 3. B. L. Larson and V. R. Smith (Editors). Academic Press, New York. 

Report on the inter comparison run IAEA-152 Radionuclides in milk powder, IAEA/AL/009, Analytical quality control services, IAEA, Vienna, 1988, p.l. 

Kahn, B. Radionuclides In Milk Determination of Picocurle Concentrations of Iodine-131 In Milk. J. Agr. Food Chem. 1, 21 (1965). 19 18153... 

Bonini, A. (EUR-4965) Rapid Determination of Radionuclides in Milk. (International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna. Div. of Research and Labs.) May 1973. 45 p. Dep. NTIS. 28 18237... 

Ivanovich M, Frohlich K, Hendry MJ (1991) Uranium series radionuclides in fluids and solids, Milk River aquifer, Alberta, Canada. Appl Geochem 6 405-418... 

As part of its Radionuclides in Food Program, the FDA determined concentrations of radionuclides in their Total Diet Study, as well as food originating from the vicinity of nuclear reactors including raw vegetables, food crops (primarily fruits), fish, and milk. While not specifically analyzed for 241Am, concentrations of... 

McClellan, R. O., Casey, H. W., Cable, J. W. and Bustad, L. K. (1962). "Transfer of heavy radionuclides to milk, page 44 in Hanford Biology Research Annual Report for 1961, Report No. HW-72500 (General Electric Company, Hanford Atomic Products Corporation, Richland, Washington). 

Potter, G. D., McIntyre, D. R. and Pomeroy, D. (1967). Transport of fallout radionuclides in the grass-to-milk food chain studied with a germanium lithium-drifted detector, page 597 in Symposium on Radioecology, USAEC Report No. CONF-670503, Nelson, D. J. and Evans, F. C., Eds. (National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia). 

Ewes fed hay containing 9000 Bq 137Cs/kg DW for 50-60 days, then 40 days on uncontaminated hay some diets contained 30 or 60 g of vermiculite daily, or 2 g of ammonium ferricyanoferrate (AFCF) daily Maximum levels of 137Cs were reached in 10 days in milk and 35-40 days in muscle. Radionuclide transfer to milk and meat was reduced 2.5 times at daily intakes of 30 g vermiculite, and 8 times at 60 g vermiculite or 2 g AFCF 37... 

Aii, T., S. Kume, S. Takahashi, M. Kurihara, and T. Mitsuhashi, 1990. The effect of the radionuclides from Chernobyl on iodine-131 and cesium-137 contents in milk and pastures in south-western Japan. Japan. Soc. Zootech. Sci. 61 47-53. 

The cow acts somewhat as a filter and discriminator in the transmission of radionuclides from feed to milk. Of the daily quantities of I and Cs ingested, about 1% is secreted in every kilogram of milk produced. For Ba and Sr the rate of transmission is less. Furthermore the cow discriminates against some of the radionuclides in favor of related elements. Thus the Sr/Ca ratio is reduced by a factor of about 10 in the passage from feed to milk. 

In 1973, the EPA established a nationwide network, called ERAMS, for obtaining data in environmental samples. ERAMS consists of a network of samphng stations that provide air, surface and drinking water, and milk samples that the EPA uses to obtain environmental concentrations of radioactive material. The objective of this system is to identity trends in the accumulation of long-lived radionuclides in the environment (EPA 1994). Sampling locations for ERAMS are located near primary population centers to provide optimal population coverage. 

Natural radionuclides are present in all plants and animals and in man. The activity of is 31 Bq per g of K, and the average activities in meat and in milk are about 120Bq/kg and 50Bq/l, respectively. The transfer of U and Th to plants and animals is very small due to the low solubility and the low resorption of these elements. Their activities in milk are of the order of 10 Bq/1 and in meat and fish of the order of 5 10 Bq/kg. Ra has better access to the food chain and, due to its similarity to Ca, Ra is enriched in bones, where it is found in amounts of the order of 10 g/g. The activity of Ra in other parts of animals and man is about 10 Bq/kg. Pb and Po, decay products of Rn, are present in aerosols and deposited with precipitations on plants. Their uptake from the air is much higher than that by the roots. They enter the food chain and are found in concentrations of 1 to 10 Bq/kg in meat. In reindeer livers values >100 Bq/kg have been measured. 

Simplified pathways between releases to atmosphere and man are shown in Fig. 9.1. Exposure may occur by direct irradiation from radionuclides in air or deposited on surfaces, by inhalation of airborne radionuclides or by consumption of contaminated food such as vegetables, milk and water. 

Direct irradiation from a plume and inhalation of radionuclides in a plume are direct pathways of exposure. The others may involve many transfer processes between sections of the environment. An example of such a pathway is the deposition of l on grazing land, its direct retention on grass or its uptake into the grass from the soil, its ingestion by cows and the subsequent ingestion of cow s milk by people, especially children. 

The isotope strontium-90 was introduced into the atmosphere by the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons. Because of the chemical similarity of strontium to calcium, it now occurs with Ca in measurable quantities in milk, bones, and teeth as a result of its presence in food and water supplies. It is a radionuclide that undergoes beta emission with a half-life of 28 years. It may cause leukemia, bone cancer, and other related disorders. If we begin with a 16-/tg sample of fgSr, 8 /tg will remain after one half-life of 28 years. After 56 years, 4 /tg will remain after 84 years, 2 /ag and so on (Figure 26-6). 

Risica S, Grisanti G, Tancredi F, et al. 1994. A study on some stable elements and radionuclides in human milk. Models Chem 131(5) 651-660. 

Ahlgren L, Ivarsson S, Johansson L, Mattsson S, Nosslin B (1985) Excretion of radionuclides in human breast milk after administration of radiopharmaceuticals. J Nucl Med 26 1085-1090 Ancri D, Lonchampt M, Basset J (1977) The effect of tin on the tissue distribution of Tc-99m sodium pertechnetate. Radiology 124 445-450... 

Milk is frequently analyzed for radionuclides in a monitoring program because it is one of the few foods that reaches the market soon after collection. Milk commonly is consumed within 7-11 days after milking and occasionally reaches the consumer within 2 days. It may contain relatively short-lived radionuclides and be a dietary source of fission-produced Sr, °Sr, 1, Cs, and as well as naturally occurring A 4-1 sample usually is collected for analysis. Cow s milk samples can be collected to represent a specific herd in the form of raw milk, or a regional pool of pasteurized milk. Goat s milk is collected when this medium may... 

Yes, there are several. However, they are not routinely available in a doctor s office, because they require special laboratory equipment. Some tests can measure the amount of radionuclides in urine, or in fecal samples, even at very low levels. A technique called "whole-body counting can detect gamma radiation emitted by cesium-137 in the body. A variety of portable instruments can directly measure cesium-137 on the skin or hair. Other techniques include directly measuring the level of cesium-137 in soft tissues samples from organs or from blood, bones, and milk. 

Radionuclides in soil are a source of the contamination of forage and food with radionuclides, of which strontium, cesium, and radium isotopes are the most significant. Radionuclides penetrate into plants either from the atmosphere as deposits on soil surface or through roots from the soil. Plants radio-actively contaminated are a significant hazard to man, either directly (food of plant origin) or indirectly (the milk of animals which receive contaminated forage). 

Samples of pasture, milk and other foodstuffs and water should be collected and measurements should be made to assess the exposure of the population and for the purposes of the implementation of interventions such as the restriction of foodstuffs. Milk is especially important in the event of a reactor accident or criticality accident because of the associated releases of radioiodines. Recommended intervention levels for radionuclides in foodstuffs are provided in the Basic Safety Standards [2], If it is suspected that releases of tritium have occurred, measurements of tritium in pasture vegetation should be made. 

The ingestion pathway is much more complicated than the others since the radionuclides, except those in drinking water, have to be taken up by the plants and then consumed by humans in either vegetable or animal form. Of the various pathways, the milk pathway is particularly important because a dairy cow consumes a large amount of vegetation and concentrates radionuclides (e.g,... 

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