Radioactive wastes origin

The radioactive wastes originating from the operation of nuclear reactors and reprocessing plants is classified according to the activity level ... 

The processes of UF and enhanced UF for low and intermediate-level radioactive waste treatment were studied at INCT, Poland. Liquid radioactive wastes originating mainly form application of radioisotopes are collected from all of Poland at Institute of Atomic Energy, in Swierk. They contain various radioactive substances (total specific activity <10 kBq/m ) and ballast non-active salts (concentration <5 g/dcm ), as well. In the solution, small radioactive ions such as H CrO, ... 

The processes of UF and enhanced UF for low- and intermediate-level radioactive waste treatments were studied at INCT, Poland. Liquid radioactive wastes originating mainly from application of radioisotopes are collected from all of... 

Collection, reprocessing, interim storage and transport of radioactive wastes originated from the 1986 accident, plant operation as well as wastes arising from decommissioning operations at the CNPP units and the Ukrytie. 

HLW comprises most of the radioactivity associated with nuclear waste. Because that designation can cover radioactive waste from more than one source, the term spent nuclear fuel (SNF) will be used to discuss HLW originating from commercial nuclear reactors. LLW comprises nearly 90 percent of the volume of nuclear waste but little of the radioactivity. Nuclear power reactors produce SNF and most of the nation s LLW, although there are approximately 20,000 different sources of LLW. The name SNF is a bit of a misnomer because it implies that there is no useful material left in the fuel, when in fact some fissionable material is left in it. 

In addition to the rotating columns previously described, there are a number of other designs for centrifugal extractors, many originally developed for the separation of radioactive wastes in nuclear processes (see Chapter 12). They are both of the mixer-settler type, as discussed in section 9.3.3, and of the rotating column types. 

Nuclear wastes are sometimes divided into two categories low-level wastes and high-level wastes. The difference in these two categories is the intensity of radiation produced. Low-level wastes tend to produce relatively small amounts of radioactivity and pose moderate health problems compared with high-level wastes. About 99 percent of all low-level waste originates in nuclear power plants. Such wastes consist of protective clothing, trash, contaminated water, and contaminated equipment, such as filters. X-ray equipment, and smoke alarms. Worldwide, low-level wastes make up about 90 percent by volume of all nuclear wastes, but they account for only about 1 percent of the total radioactivity emitted by those wastes. 

RadAway is a technology for the treatment of liquid low-level radioactive wastes (LLRW). Each RadAway cartridge contains a proprietary slurry that, according to the vendor, binds radioactive molecules thereby removing them from liquid waste. The technology rednces the volume of LLRW to be disposed of to one thirtieth the original volnme. This volnme rednction in turn greatly reduces the cost of disposal. 

To conclude, we see the recent update of the Nagra/PSI data base as a small, but important, step towards completeness and reliability of the large body of thermodynamic data needed to calculate chemical equilibrium in the complex geochemical systems occurring within or in the vicinity of radioactive waste disposal sites. The most important achievement in this exercise was probably the elimination of a conspicuous number of thermodynamic data not supported by experimental evidence or of dubious origin. This sieving procedure resulted in a reduced, but at least transparent and self-consistent data base. Future extensions can now be built on this well-documented basis. 

Note that a solution more concentrated than the original one also results from the reverse osmosis process. This means that the method of reverse osmosis may also be used as a method for concentrating solutions. Fruit juices and radioactive wastes, for example, have been concentrated by this method. 

The economic break between fixed bed and continuous operation has been estimated as ion concentrations of 0.57V, or flow rates above 300 gpm, or when three or more parallel beds are required to maintain continuous operation. The original application of continuous ion exchange was to treatment of radioactive wastes, but some installations of ordinary water treating have been made. 

Requirements for Disposal. The Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act of 1980 (LLRWPA, 1980), as amended by the Policy Amendments Act (LLRWPAA, 1986), governs disposal of commercial low-level waste. A particular disposal technology is not specified, but shallow-land burial was presumed in accordance with contemporary practices. The original Act (LLRWPA, 1980) directed NRC to identify alternatives to shallow-land burial for commercial low-level waste and to establish technical guidance and requirements for licensing of alternative disposal methods. NRC published technical studies of alternative disposal technologies (Bennett, 1985 Bennett and Warriner, 1985 Bennett et al., 1984 Miller and Bennett, 1985 Warriner and Bennett, 1985), but specific licensing criteria for these alternatives have not been established. 

Although gaseous and liquid wastes originating from the operation of nuclear facilities and radioactivity treatment facilities etc. are allowed to be released in... 

Low-level radioactive wastes, which originate from floor drains from PWR, laboratories, samphng points and auxiliary equipment drains Floor drains from PWR and spent resins tank drain-down... 

---