Predator/prey recognition

Odors are involved in several aspects of the life cycles of animals scent marking, kin, caste, age, conspecifics, individual, social status, physiological status and sexual recognition, territorial marking, mating, sexual attraction, alarm, predator-prey interaction, defense, migration, reproductive isolation and feeding. 

Allelochemical interactions in marine organisms are not restricted to sex pheromones. Predator-prey interaction, feeding behavior and species, sex and individual recognition are also involved. 

The use of chemical cues in predator/prey interaction appears widespread among amphibians (Kats Dill 1998). Chemical alarm pheromones have been examined most extensively in larval frogs and toads (Chivers Smith 1998). However, recent experiments also suggest that caudate amphibians use chemical alarm pheromones. Numerous studies have investigated the use of chemical substances that make amphibians noxious or toxic to predators. Chemical cues from predators often induce antipredator responses in amphibian prey. In some cases, chemical cues may be the primary sensory stimuli used for predator recognition. Chemosen-sory-induced antipredator responses may include behavioral defenses as well as alterations in life-history characteristics. 

In this paper we review learned recognition of heterospecific alarm cues by prey fishes. We do this by providing a case study of the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas)/bTOok stickleback Culaea inconstans) alarm systems. Fathead minnows and brook stickleback commonly occur together in a diversity of water bodies. They share a similar suite of predators and consequently cross-species responses to alarm cues should be highly advantageous. 

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