Pioneering Schools

Quaker schools initially led the way. The Quaker religious principles allowed women to play an active role in both the public and private spheres of the Religious Society of Friends.7 In the history of The Mount School, a Quaker school in York, Winifred Sturge and Theodora Clark comment in general on the reason why Quaker schools for girls benefited from the austere aspects of the Quaker movement  

Edward Grubb taught chemistry at the School (in addition to Latin, mathematics, and psychology), and Sturge and Clark commented To his lectures on chemistry his audience came in a mood of prophetic sympathy, awaiting the experiment Will it Won t it It generally wouldn t Why should it For before the laboratory was built in 1884 there was no scientific equipment worth the name. 8 

Jane Heath, at Sarah and Harriet Hoare s Quaker school in Frenchay, wrote in 1820 to her mother  

We rise a little before seven and study Geography till eight with dissected maps. After breakfast we make our beds and into school again by nine. .. I have then to write a page of English and Natural History, lectures on Chemistry, Botany, etc., besides parsing and a slateful of exercises so that I cannot always finish before dinner.12 

The dedication and fearlessness of these pioneering headmistresses cannot be overemphasised. As a result of their 

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Two German physical chemists, W. Sehottky and C. Wagner, founded this branch of materials seience. The story is very clearly set out in a biographical memoir of Carl Wagner (1901 1977) by another pioneer solid-state chemist, Hermann Schmalzried (1991), and also in Wagner s own survey of point defects and their interaction (Wagner 1977) - his last publieation. Sehottky we have already briefly met in connection with the Pohl school s study of colour centres... 

Pioneer has done a peculiar thing, which is to put a Southern Comfort cocktail, the Yellow Desert Rose, on its menu. Southern Comfort is not something I had thought about since it crossed my lips thirty-six years ago, at age fifteen. It made fine drinking in high school, and then, after one night of too much, it was gone—the sweet booze of youth. 

In this chapter we will discuss the results of the studies of the kinetics of some systems of consecutive, parallel or parallel-consecutive heterogeneous catalytic reactions performed in our laboratory. As the catalytic transformations of such types (and, in general, all the stoichiometrically not simple reactions) are frequently encountered in chemical practice, they were the subject of investigation from a variety of aspects. Many studies have not been aimed, however, at investigating the kinetics of these transformations at all, while a number of others present only the more or less accurately measured concentration-time or concentration-concentration curves, without any detailed analysis or quantitative kinetic interpretation. The major effort in the quantitative description of the kinetics of coupled catalytic reactions is associated with the pioneer work of Jungers and his school, based on their extensive experimental material 17-20, 87, 48, 59-61). At present, there are so many studies in the field of stoichiometrically not simple reactions that it is not possible, or even reasonable, to present their full account in this article. We will therefore mention only a limited number in order for the reader to obtain at least some brief information on the relevant literature. Some of these studies were already discussed in Section II from the point of view of the approach to kinetic analysis. Here we would like to present instead the types of reaction systems the kinetics of which were studied experimentally. 

Much earlier information on the structure of diazonium ions than that derived from X-ray analyses (but still useful today) was obtained by infrared spectroscopy. The pioneers in the application of this technique to diazonium and diazo compounds were Le Fevre and his school, who provided the first IR evidence for the triple bonds by identifying the characteristic stretching vibration band at 2260 cm-1 (Aroney et al., 1955 see also Whetsel et al., 1956). Its frequency lies between the Raman frequency of dinitrogen (2330 cm-1, Schrotter, 1970) and the stretching vibration frequency of the C = N group in benzonitrile (2255 cm-1, Aroney et al., 1955). In substituted benzenediazonium salts the frequency of the NN stretching vibration follows Hammett op relationships. Electron donor substituents reduce the frequency, whereas acceptor substituents increase it. The 4-dimethylamino group, for example, shifts it by 103 cm-1 to 2177 cm-1 (Nuttall et al., 1961). This result supports the hypothesis that... 

Scientific studies of friction can be traced back to several hundreds years ago when the pioneers, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Amontons (1699), and Coulomb (1785), established the law of friction that "friction is proportional to the normal load and independent of the nominal area of contact, which are still being taught today in schools. Since then, scientists and engineers have been trying to answer two fundamental questions where friction comes from and why it exhibits such a behavior as described above. Impressive progress has been made but the mystery of friction has not been resolved yet. In an attempt to interpret the origin of... 

The death of Francisco Garcia Gonzalez, Emeritus Professor of Organic Chemistry at the University of Seville, Spain, deprived carbohydrate chemistry of a long-lived and enthusiastic researcher. Professor Garcia Gonzalez was a pioneer in carbohydrate research in Spain, and a leader for many years of an active school of research that has now spread to several universities and research centers in that country. 

EPA research investments since 1995 in pesticide exposure and risk assessment methods have helped pioneer novel approaches to quantify risk levels. A team at the University of Washington s School of Public Health and Community Medicine found that 2-5 year olds consuming predominantly organic foods over a 3-day period had 8.5-fold lower mean levels of OP insecticide metabolites in their urine than children eating mosdy conventional (unlabeled) foods (Curl et al., 2003). The study was carefully designed to minimize potentially... 

At that time I started to work with Dr. Clive R. Taylor, Professor and Chairman of Pathology at the University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine. Clive is a world renowned pioneer in archival IHC used for pathology since the early 1970s. With his kind help and support, I have been conducting a series of research projects on basic principles, further development, standardization and mechanisms of the AR technique. This work has yielded more than 40 peer reviewed articles and a book. Our AR research has been funded by NIH grant since 2001. 

These complexes of thiosemicarbazones and related systems are of obvious general interest because of the involvement of hydrogen bonding and, in some instances, the association of the transitions with hysteresis. Since the pioneering work of the Russian school they have received relatively little attention but interest in them has been re-kindled [111] and can be expected to grow. 

The most relevant property of stereoregular polymers is their ability to crystallize. This fact became evident through the work of Natta and his school, as the result of the simultaneous development of new synthetic methods and of extensive stractural investigations. Previously, the presence of crystalline order had been ascertained only in a few natural polymers (cellulose, natural rubber, bal-ata, etc.) and in synthetic polymers devoid of stereogenic centers (polyethylene, polytetrafluoroethylene, polyamids, polyesters, etc.). After the pioneering work of Meyer and Mark (70), important theoretical and experimental contributions to the study of crystalline polymers were made by Bunn (159-161), who predicted the most probable chain conformation of linear polymers and determined the crystalline structure of several macromolecular compounds. 

To conclude this review I must pay a tribute to the work and figure of Giulio Natta who pioneered macromolecular stereochemistry and was an active protagonist in die field for many years. The most important aspects of his discoveries and the present significance of the research derived therefrom have been illustrated by his students and by scientists from all over the world (16, 18). As may be seen finom the present article, many of the fundamental discoveries were derived from the work of his research group at the Milan Polytechnic. A large part of the later development, also, is the fruit of a cultural tradition that has influenced the whole Italian school of polymer chemistry. 

The chemistry of fluorine and its compounds was for many years studied in very few laboratories indeed until about 1920 many of the important new advances came either from the Paris laboratory, in which fluorine was first isolated by Moissan, or from the laboratory of Ruff in Breslau. Ruff s school was particularly productive and many of the topics which are of interest in current research stem directly from the pioneer work carried out under his direction. 

Clemens Alexander Winkler" 1838-1904. Professor of chemistry at the Freiberg School of Mines Pioneer in the analysis of gases. Manufacturer of nickel and cobalt He discovered the element germanium and made pioneer researches on indium... 

The intensities of the infrared absorptions and of the inelastic scattered light (Raman) are determined by such electrical factors as dipole moments and polarizabilities. At the time of the pioneering studies on the infrared spectra of carbohydrates by the Birmingham school,7"11 calculations of the vibrational frequencies had been performed only for simple molecules of fewer than ten atoms.27,34,35 However, many tables of group frequencies, based on empirical or semi-empirical correlations between spectra and molecular structure, are available.32,34"37... 

CONANT, JAMES BRYANT (1893-1978). An American chemisi and educator, bom in Boslon, who received his doctorate in chemisiry from Harvard in 1916 and was president of Harvard for 20 years (1933-19531. His major scientific activities included pioneering research on chlorophyll and importanl contributions to the Manhattan Project. Perhaps his greatest achievements lay in the educational field, in which he exerted a strong liberalizing influence at both the collegiate and secondary school levels. He also was ambassador to postwar Germany and educational adviser to Berlin. He wrote many books on science and education, including basic chemical tests, and received a number of scientific and educational awards. 

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