Physical Science Reference Tables

This table lists some abbreviations, acronyms, and symbols encountered in the physical sciences. Most entries in italic type are symbols for physical quantities for more details on these, see the table Symbols and Terminology for Physical and Chemical Quantities in this section. Additional information on units may be found in the table International System of Units (SI) in Section 1. Many of the terms to which these abbreviations refer are included in the tables Definitions of Scientific Terms in Section 2 and Techniques for Materials Characterization in Section 12. Useful references for further information are given below. 

After a consideration of optical transitions in which MMCT plays a role, and after a characterization of the excited states involved, a short review of mixed-valence compounds and their spectroscopy is in order. For more extended reviews we refer to Refs. [60,97], At least 40 elements of the periodic table form mixed-valence species which are of importance in solid state physics and chemistry, inorganic chemistry, materials science, geology and bioinorganic chemistry. It is usually their colors which are their most striking property (see also above), but they have more intriguing properties, for example electrical and magnetic properties. 

In this chapter we get to know the second essential equation of surface science — the Kelvin5 equation. Like the Young-Laplace equation it is based on thermodynamic principles and does not refer to a special material or special conditions. The subject of the Kelvin equation is the vapor pressure of a liquid. Tables of vapor pressures for various liquids and different temperatures can be found in common textbooks or handbooks of physical chemistry. These vapor pressures are reported for vapors which are in thermodynamic equilibrium with liquids having planar surfaces. When the liquid surface is curved, the vapor pressure changes. The vapor pressure of a drop is higher than that of a flat, planar surface. In a bubble the vapor pressure is reduced. The Kelvin equation tells us how the vapor pressure depends on the curvature of the liquid. 

Barsoum, M. W. and Ownby, P. D. (1981) in Surfaces and Interfaces in Ceramic and Ceramic-Metal Systems, ed. J. Pask and A. Evans, Plenum Press, New-York, p. 457 Chase, M. W., Davies, C. A., Downey, J. R., Frurip, D. J., McDonald, R. A. and Syverud, A. N. (1985) JANAF Thermochemical Tables, ed. D. R. Lide, 3rd ed., J. of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, vol. 14, American Chemical Society and the American Institute of Physics for the National Bureau of Standards Chatillon, C. and Massies, J. (1990) Materials Science Forum, Transtec Publications, Switzerland, 59 60,229... 

These tables give the 1998 self-consistent set of values of the basic constants and conversion factors of physics and chemistry recommended by the Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA) for international use. The 1998 set replaces the previous set of constants recommended by CODATA in 1986 assigned uncertainties have been reduced by a factor of 1/5 to 1/12 (and sometimes even greater) relative to the 1986 uncertainties. The recommended set is based on a least-squares adjustment involving all of the relevant experimental and theoretical data available through December 31, 1998. Full details of the input data and the adjustment procedure are given in Reference 1. 

The thermodynamic data of carbon dioxide and other fluids are compiled in International Thermodynamic Tables of the Fluid State published by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (lUPAC) [28] in the form of tables and equations of state. Thermodynamic data and equations of state are also provided by Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data for argon [29], nitrogen [29], oxygen [29], carbon dioxide [30], methane [31], ethane [31], propane [31], butane [31, 32], isobutene [31, 32], ethylene [29] and methanol [33]. Fluid Phase Equilibria , Journal of Supercritical Fluids and Chemical Engineering Science are also good sources of thermodynamic and thermochemical data of SCFs. Data for phase diagrams. 

In previous chapters we have seen how Dalton s atomic theory encountered difficulties, especially during the first half of the nineteenth century. After 1860 the chemical atom became so useful, especially to organic chemists, that only a few dissenting voices were heard in this branch of the science. However, to many physicists the atomic concept seemed unnecessary, and some of the great advances in nineteenth century physics had been made without reference to atomism. Then, in a series of discoveries which were made in rapid succession around the turn of the century, the existence of atoms was established to the satisfaction of everyone. All atoms were shown to contain identical subatomic particles, which were called electrons. Furthermore, certain atoms were shown to be undergoing spontaneous and continuous transmutation into others. The atomic concept may have been vindicated, but at the cost of disproving Dalton s tenets of the indivisibility and immutability of atoms. Further advances placed the periodic table on a firm theoretical basis, and provided an explanation of the forces involved in chemical bonding. 

Textile fiber fractography was initially developed at UMIST (University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology), especially by Hearle. Fiber fractography and the classes of fracture were reviewed by Hearle and Simmens [15] and further defined later [29, 30]. These classes are shown in Table 5.1 with examples and appropriate references. The mechanism of fiber failure can be determined by fractography studies (Section 4.8.1) in the SEM. Typically, fibers broken during a standard physical test, such as... 

The user study took place in the HCI/Graphics lab in the UIUC Computer Science building. Four lapel microphones were wired to the bottom of our table. Tags on each individual microphone indicated the color associated with that microphone. Participants were informed that this color visualizes their activity in the Conversation Clock. A DV-camcorder monitored interaction from a nearby tripod during all sessions. During conversation, this video recorded gestures and physical references for later analysis. 

The periodic system has served as the arena in which one of the most detailed attempts to reduce chemistry to atomic physics has been conducted. In 1985 the Dutch philosophers of science, Hettema and Kuipers, developed what they termed a formalization of the periodic system, and used this as a basis to discuss the reduction of chemistry to atomic physics [Hettema, Kuipers, 1988 Scerri, 1997], Le Poidevin has referred extensively to the periodic table in a study claiming that chemistry does not even reduce to physics ontologically [Le Poidevin, 2005]. Two independent criticisms of this article have appeared in the literature [Hendry and Needham, 2007 Scerri, 2007b], On the question of the law-like status of the periodic law, Christie has authored an article on the different ways in which chemists and philosophers regard the laws of nature [Christie, 1994],... 

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