Photovoltaic systems

Maintenance and Operations of Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems, Naval Eacihties Engineering Command, Southern Division, rev. 1991. 

K. Smith, Survey of U.S. Eine-Connected Photovoltaic Systems, EPRI GS-6306, Palo Alto, Calif., 1989. 

Unlike solar thermal systems or PV concentrator systems, the PV flat plate systems work well in cloudy locations because these latter convert diffuse as well as direct sunlight to electricity. On an aimualized basis, the energy produced by a photovoltaic array varies by only about 25% from an average value for the contiguous 48 states of the United States. As a result, it is practical to use photovoltaic systems in normally cloudy locations such as Seattle or northern Maine. 

Photovoltaic systems for specific applications are produced by connecting individual modules in series and parallel to provide the desired voltage and current (Figure 4). Each module is constructed of individual solar cells also connected in series and parallel. Modules are typically available in ratings from a few peak watts to 250 peak watts. 

Photovoltaic solar cells, 26 93 Photovoltaic system, component balance in, 23 48-19... 

NEC/NFPA 70 Article 690,691 705 NFPA 690 - Solar Photovoltaic Systems 691-Fuel Cells 705 - Interconnected Power Production Sources... 

NFPA 70 National Fire Protection Association 70 is also known as the National Electric Code (NEC). Revisions and addendum s to the code are currently being developed that specifically address fuel cells. Article 690 - Solar Photovoltaic Systems has been targeted for revision to include fuel cells and alternate energy sources systems. This proposal is not expected to be approved since the technological and operational differences between fuel cells and photovoltaic systems is considerable. A new article, currently identified and Article 691, has been proposed and applies to fuel cells for buildings or residential dwellings. This standard addresses the electrical interface between the fuel cell system and a building s electrical distribution panel. 

Photovoltaic systems can be implemented in a wide range of applications, sizes and situations and to meet a wide range of power needs. 

Conibeer GJ, Richards BS (2007) A comparison of hydrogen storage technologies for solar-powered stand-alone power supplies A photovoltaic system sizing approach. Int J Hydrogen Energy (in press)... 

Giridharagopal R, Ginger DS (2010) Characterizing morphology in bulk heterojunction organic photovoltaic systems. J Phys Chem Lett 1 1160... 

H2 Refuelling station in Barcelona. Electrolysis production of hydrogen, which will be supplied at high pressure to three buses participating in the European CUTE project. It will be the first hydrogen production plant with a solar photovoltaic system, producing 10% of electricity needs. 

Many photovoltaic systems are aimed at the generation of hydrogen and a multitude of complex systems have been studied194,201-212. Typically, such systems are comprised... 

A solar photovoltaic system contains, in addition to solar cells and module(s), an array structure to support the modules, power-conditioning circuitry for control and modification of the output, and a means of storing energy if required. All elements beyond the module are referred to as balance-of-system (BOS) components. The cost of BOS items is nominally about equal to the cost of the PV module. However, the BOS fractional cost contribution can vary from one- to two-thirds of the total installed cost of a system, depending on application. 

The interfaces of importance in SECS are the solid/solid (S/S), solid/gas (S/G), and solid/ liquid (S/L) (4). The area-intensive nature of SECS components was established in the previous section. The major problem is collecting solar energy at a cost that is competitive with other energy forms. Thus, low initial cost is required for the materials, support structures, and production processes in the SECS of interest in Fig. 1 (6). This requires, for example, using thin films in mirrors, in photovoltaic systems, for antireflection coatings on windows, for passive collection, etc. in addition, these films must be made from inexpensive, durable, and easily processed materials (5). Inexpensive long-life materials in flat-plate collectors and durable, stable absorber coatings are also necessary. 

Meanwhile, some consumers are willing to pay for solar installations despite high costs (around 40,000 per home). In the U.S., the number of new photovoltaic system installations in homes tripled from 2,805 in 2002 to 7,446 in 2006, according to the Interstate Renewable Energy Council, www.irecusa.org. 

Photovoltaic Systems Photovoltaic Concentrator Cells Daylighting Systems... 

Photovoltaic Systems Development Manufacture Integrated Photovoltaic Manufacturing Systems... 

Photovoltaic Systems Solar Remote Power Systems Solar Vehicle Power Systems... 

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