Organizational level

At the next organizational level are factors directly causing error 1) job characteristics such o Complexity, time stress, noise, lighting, environment, or mental requirements, and 2) individual factors such as personality, and team performance. These, collectively, are called performance-influencing factors, or PIFs. 

This section illustrates some of the more global influences at the organizational level which create the preconditions for error. Inadequate policies in areas such as the design of the human-machine interface, procedures, training, and the organization of work will also have contributed implicitly to many of the other human errors considered in this chapter. 

What are the characteristics of graduate mentors These will depend very much on the focus of the scheme. In terms of organizational level, for example, a more experienced peer-mentor would probably suffice if the purpose of the scheme is induction only. If, however, the purpose of the scheme is to identify and stimulate high-potential employees, the mentor might have to be one or two ranks more senior than the graduate. This would allow for more qualified decisions to... 

Some of the best evidence of links between effects at different organizational levels comes from studies with OPs, where levels of AChE inhibition have been compared with associated neurophysiological and behavioral effects. In adopting this approach, however, the picture is complicated by mounting evidence for these compounds acting on target sites other than AChE, as discussed in Section 16.3. Thus, behavioral disturbances caused by an OP may be the outcome of interaction with both AChE and one or more other sites of action. The following account, however, will be concerned with situations where effects of OPs are closely related to levels of AChE inhibition. More complex scenarios will be discussed in the next section. 

At lower temperatures, weaker intercluster interactions may lead to further aggregation into superclusters (clusters of clusters). In this manner the unit at one temperature becomes the subunit at a lower temperature, leading to a hierarchy of organizational levels. Clusters and superclusters may underlie the properties of many amorphous solids and glasses, but such materials are beyond the scope of the present work. 

A second, but related, reason for difficulties in scaling up individual knowledge to the organizational level has to do with paradoxes associated with the conversion of private to collective goods (Spender,... 

FIGURE 18.2 Relationship between organizational level and size. 

High acute doses of ionizing radiation produce adverse biological effects at every organizational level molecular, cellular, tissue-organ, whole animal, population, community, and ecosystem (ICRP 1977 Whicker and Schultz 1982b LWV 1985 Hobbs and McClellan 1986 UNSCEAR 1988 Kiefer 1990 Severn and Bar 1991). Typical adverse effects of ionizing radiation include ... 

You need to pitch the project at a strategic or organizational level it should not be concerned with issues that are trivial or mundane. Certainly it should not be at the level of supervising routine activities, nor should it be of a clerical nature, nor exclusively technical or professional. Ideally it should involve the bringing about of change. Ideally you need to tackle a problem that has organizational ramifications. 

Ego satisfaction. Having a job, even at a lower organizational level than the one you held before retiring, can help your self image. 

As previously indicated, inhibition of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes can cause either an increase or a decrease in toxicity. Several well-known inhibitors of such enzymes are shown in Figure 9.6 and are discussed in this section. Inhibitory effects can be demonstrated in a number of ways at different organizational levels. 

We have shown many examples of the way in which ecological science can be enriched through knowledge of the effects of the environment on living systems. The interactive units are populations and species, rather than individual organisms. Data obtained from individuals need to be extrapolated to higher organizational levels. 

When managers perform management activities, they can do so at a number of levels with a variety of different purposes in mind. While some people think of management activities as only occurring at a corporate or organizational level, management activities occur much more frequently at lower levels. 

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