Occupational exposure to lead

Because of the toxicity of lead, special care must be taken when working with lead ahoys. Lead and its inorganic compounds are neurotoxias which may produce peripheral neuropathy. Eor an overview of the effects of lead exposure, see Occupational Exposure to Lead, Appendix A (29 CRE 1910.1025) (see... 

Less than 0.5 percent of the black children at the Dixie site were found to have lead toxicity (Table XX). As previously noted, the three non-black children (6.6 percent of non-black children) found to have lead toxicity were siblings In a household where the father had an occupational exposure to lead. 

Histopathological evidence of renal damage has been observed in lead-exposed workers. Renal ultrastructure and function were examined in five men with heavy occupational exposure to lead (Cramer et al. 1974). In addition, renal function was evaluated in two men from whom renal biopsies were not obtained. PbB levels ranged from 71 to 138 pg/dL. Renal function tests were normal in all except for a reduced glomerular filtration rate in one worker. Two subjects with relatively short exposure to lead (6 weeks and 8 months) and PbB levels of 89-129 pg/dL had intranuclear inclusions in the proximal tubules. Renal biopsies from workers with longer periods of lead exposure (4-20 years, PbB levels of 71-138 pg/dL) had diffuse interstitial or peritubular fibrosis. Glomeruli were normal in all subjects. 

Selected studies are discussed below and include reports on occupational exposure to lead for females and males followed by environmental (low level) exposure to lead in females and males. 

The information available regarding the association of occupational exposure to lead with increased cancer risk is generally limited in its usefulness because the actual compound(s) of lead, the route(s) of exposure, and level(s) of lead to which the workers were exposed were often not reported. Furthermore, potential for exposure to other chemicals including arsenic, cadmium, and antimony occurred, particularly in lead smelters, and smoking was a possible confounder (Cooper 1976 IARC 1987). These studies, therefore, are not sufficient to determine the carcinogenicity of lead in humans, and the following discussion is restricted to the most comprehensive of these studies. 

Musculoskeletal Effects. Individuals who have had high exposures to lead, either occupationally or by the consumption of alcohol from lead stills, have been reported to exhibit a bluish-tinged line in the gums (i.e., the "lead line"). In addition, case reports of high occupational exposure to lead have described the occurrence of muscle weakness, cramps, and joint pain. 

Results from a recent study showed a marginally significant association of Parkinson s disease with more than 20 years of occupational exposure to lead (Gorell et al. 1997) when the analysis included more than 20 years of combined exposure to lead and iron, the association greatly increased, with the odds ratios exceeding that for exposure to one of the metals alone. 

Information on occupational exposure to lead is obtained primarily from the National Occupational Exposure Survey (NOES) and industry surveys of workers. While occupational exposure is widespread, environmental monitoring data on levels of exposure in many occupations are not available. OSHA has established a permissible exposure limit (PEL) for lead of 50 pg/m3 for workplace air (OSHA 1991). NIOSH has estimated that more than 1 million American workers were occupationally exposed to inorganic lead in more than 100 occupations (NIOSH 1977a, 1978a). According to NOES, conducted by NIOSH between 1980 and 1983, an estimated 25,169 employees were exposed to tetraethyl lead (not used in gasoline since December 31, 1995) approximately 57,000 employees were exposed to various lead oxides mostly in non-ferrous foundries, lead smelters, and battery plants 3,902 employees were exposed to lead chloride and 576,579 employees were exposed to some other form of lead in the workplace in 1980 (NIOSH 1990). Workers who operate and maintain solid waste incinerators are also exposed to air lead levels as high as 2,500 pg/m3 (Malkin 1992). 

OSHA requires employers of workers who are occupationally exposed to a toxic or hazardous substance to institute engineering controls and work practices that maintain or reduce their exposure to a level that is at or below the permissible exposure limit (PEL) established for the substance. For occupational exposures to lead, the employer must use engineering controls and work practices to achieve an occupational exposure of 50 pg/nr3 (0.006 ppm) or lower, based on an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA) (OSHA 1995). When employee exposures to lead can not be maintained at or below 50 pg/rn3... 

Cocco PL, Cocco E, Anni MS, et al. 1991. Occupational exposure to lead and blood cholesterol in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficient and normal subjects. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol 72(1) 81-95. 

Fischbein A, Tsang P, Luo J-CJ, et al. 1993. Phenotypic aberrations of CD3+ and CD4+ cells and functional impairments of lymphocytes at low-level occupational exposure to lead. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 66 163-168. 

Fomi A, Camiaghi G, Sechi GC. 1976. Initial occupational exposure to lead Chromosome and biochemical findings. Arch Environ Health 31 73-78. 

Hu H, Pepper L, Goldman R. 1991. Effect of repeated occupational exposure to lead, cessation of exposure, and chelation on levels of lead in bone. Am J Ind Med 20 723-735. 

Joselow MM, Flores J. 1977. Application of the zinc protoporphyrin (ZP) test as a monitor of occupational exposure to lead. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 38 63-66. 

Schuhmacher M, Patemain JL, Domingo JL, et al. 1997. An assessment of some biomonitors indicative of occupational exposure to lead. Trace Elements and Electrolytes 14(3) 145-149. 

Schwanitz G, Lenhert G. Gebhart E. 1970. [Chromosome damage after occupational exposure to lead.] Deutsch Med Wschr 95 1630-1641. (German)... 

Somashekaraiah BV, Venkaiah B, Prasad ARK. 1990. Biochemical diagnosis of occupational exposure to lead toxicity. Bull Environ Contamin Toxicol 44 268-275. 

Wildt K, Eliasson R, Berlin M. 1983. Effects of occupational exposure to lead on sperm and semen. 

Williamson AM, Teo RKC. 1986. Neurobehavioral effects of occupational exposure to lead. BrJInd Med 43 374-380. 

Winder C. 1987. Reproductive effects of occupational exposures to lead Policy considerations. Neurotoxicology 8 411-419. 

Winder C. 1989. Reproductive and chromosomal effects of occupational exposure to lead in the male. Reprod Toxicol 3 221-233. 

Occupational safety healthy administration. Occupational safety and healt standards. Z. Toxic and hazardous substances. 1910-1025 App A. Substance data sheet for occupational exposure to lead. Consulted on March 2012. http //www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp. show document p id= 10031 p table=ST AND ARDS... 

Landrigan, P.J. (1990). Current issues in the epidemiology and toxicology of occupational exposure to lead. Environ. Health Perspect., 89, 61-66. 

In battery workmen with a mean occupational exposure to lead of 8.5 (1-23) years, and with blood lead concentrations of 53-75 p,g/ 100 ml of blood, there was an increased frequency of abnormalities of sperm, including hypospermia, compared with a control group. ... 

Chemicals can also directly affect male reproductive organs or sperm. Decreased sperm count, decreased sperm motility, or abnormalities can result in male sterility or reduced fertility. For example, occupational exposure to lead can result in infertility due to sperm abnormalities. Male sterility can also result from exposure to the fungicide dibromochloropropane (DBCP). Drugs or chemicals, such as... 

Lead Standard (29 CFR 1910.1025). Since colorant and additive production involves the use of lead compounds, the lead standard (29 CFR 1910.1025) becomes important. This standard applies to all occupational exposures to lead and lead compounds and requires respiratory protection when workplace exposure levels for lead reaches or exceeds 5 pg/m ... 

Anttila A Sallmen M. 1995. Effects of parental occupational exposure to lead and other metals on spontaneous abortion, [review], J Occup Environ Med 37(8) 915-21. 

British Journal of Industrial Medicine 43 374-380,1986 Winegar DA, Levy BS, Andrews JS Jr, et al Chronic occupational exposure to lead an evaluation of the health of smelter workers. J Occup Med 19 603-606, 1977 Yokoyama K, Araki S, Aono H Reversibility of psychological performance in subclin-ical lead absorption. Neurotoxicology 9 405-410,1988 Zimmermann-Tansella C, Campara P, Andrea FD, et al Psychological and physical complaints of subjects with low exposure to lead. Human Toxicology 2 615-623, 1983... 

Occupational exposure to lead and other toxic substances can be problematic at the multiple stages of the recycling process. Although much attention has been paid to exposure reduction via ventilation controls or PPE, basic process design is also important. Process modifications may be feasible to eliminate or reduce the generation of emissions, for example ... 

Hong CD, Hanenson IG, Lerner S, Hammond PB, PesceAJ, Poliak VE. Occupational exposure to lead effects on renal function. Kidney Int 1980 18 489-494. 

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