Nuclear fuel resources uranium

Kok, K.D. 2003. Used nuclear fuel/depleted uranium Is it a waste or a resource Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Environmnetal Remediation and Radiactive Waste Management, ICEM 2013, Paper 96001, Sept. 8-12, 2013, Brussels, Belgium. 

FIGURE 2.1 The price of uranium oxide (US lb ) since 1987. (Reproduced from the World Nuclear Association, http //www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/ Uranium-Resources/Uranium-Markets/, last accessed July 27, 2014. With permission.)... 

For example, the measure of change fix>m coal to natural gas or nuclear fuel is classified itrto regrettable one from the viewpoints of resources, because the amount of natural gas or uranium resources is much less than that of coal. 

Nuclear fuel cycle, 77 545-547 safety principles and, 17 546-547 Nuclear fuel reprocessing, 10 789-790 Nuclear fuel reserves, 17 518-530 alternative sources of, 17 527 economic aspects of, 17 526-527 toxicology of uranium, 17 528-529 uranium mineral resources, 17 518-521, 522-525... 

In the light of the projected growth of demand for energy services, particularly electricity, there is a renewed interest in the extension of nuclear power in some countries. With uranium being a finite resource as well, Chapter 4 focuses primarily on the question of a future expansion of nuclear power in the context of the availability of nuclear fuels. Moreover, the evolution of the next generation of nuclear reactors, such as breeder reactors or reactors suitable for hydrogen production, is addressed. 

The development of thorium-based nuclear power cycles still faces various problems and requires much more R D to be commercialised. As a nuclear fuel, thorium could play a more important role in the coming decades, partly as it is more abundant on Earth than uranium and also because mined thorium has the potential to be used completely in nuclear reactors, compared with the 0.7% of natural uranium. Its future use as a nuclear source of energy will, however, depend greatly on the technological developments currently investigated in various parts of the world and the availability of and access to conventional uranium resources. 

Nuclear energy is a long-term energy resource that can serve the United States and the world for centuries. With major uranium supplies in the United States, Canada, and Australia, increased reliance on nuclear fuel supplies adds to U.S. energy security. Nuclear power reactors do not involve any C02 emissions to the atmosphere, nor do they emit any toxic air pollutants such as are emitted by fossil-fueled power... 

The advantage of the Th-U fuel cycle is that it increases nuclear energy resources considerably because thorium is about three times more abundant on earth than uranium and almost as widely distributed. In combination with the uranium fuel cycle it could more than double the lifetime of the uranium resources by running the reactors at a high conversion rate (-1.0) and recycling the fuel. Very rich thorium minerals are more common than rich uranium minerals. The presence of extensive thorium ores has motivated some countries (e.g. India) to develop the Th-U fuel cycle. 

While uranium yellowcake prices have risen steeply in recent years there is no immediate or medium-term prospect of fuel resource scarcity, nor do rising prices have much impact on the economics of nuclear power. CESSA notes, however, that a global shift from replace nuclear with nuclear towards policies of nuclear expansion could put uranium supply under pressure and hence greatly improve the economics of reprocessing. 

For the next few decades, saving of uranium resources by nuclear fuel breeding will not be of primary importance for countries with a significant nuclear power sector. This is caused by a number of factors, namely (a) accumulation of plutonium as a result of reprocessing of spent fuel of the operating NPPs (b) release of considerable amount of plutonium and enriched uranium owing to disarmament (c) decrease of uranium consumption in the military industry (d) slowing down of the rate of nuclear power development and (e) ready availability of fossil fuels (natural gas and oil). 

Estimates of world energy resources are summarized. It is pointed out that the great effort to exploit nuclear energy can be justified only if it is directed toward a full utilization of uranium and thorium. Without breeding, nuclear fuels will only supply energy for a few decades in the future energy-hungry world. 

If the consumption of uranium continues at the current level and is used only for LWRs, the uranium resources for energy sources will be available for less than 100 years. However, if the nuclear fuel cycles are established and fuel breeding is achieved in FRs, then the duration of the use of uranium resources will be extended to several thousand years. In addition, if uranium in seawater becomes usable, the duration of use will exceed more than a million years. To that end, it is important to build nuclear reactors that can breed fuel and to develop nuclear fuel cycles, which can efficiently extract reusable nuclear fuel materials after burning. 

Being a fast reactor with a breeding ratio of-1.0016, the RAPED could also contribute to the effective use of uranium resources, once a closed nuclear fuel cycle is established. 

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