Norwalk-like viruses

Kageyama, T., Kojima, S., Shinohara, M., Uchida, K., Fukushi, S., Hoshino, F. B., Takeda, N., and Katayama, K. (2003). Broadly reactive and highly sensitive assay for Norwalk-like viruses based on real-time quantitative reverse transcription-PCR. /. Clin. Microbiol. 41, 1548-1557. 

Moe, C. L., Christmas, W. A., Echols, L. J., and Miller, S. E. (2001). Outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis associated with Norwalk-like viruses in campus settings. /. Am. Coll. Health 50, 57-66. 

Norwalk Like Virus (Norovirus) 24-48 h Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain ... 

The majority of outbreaks linked to enteric viruses is typically caused by person-to-person contact although fresh produce can also be a significant vehicle, especially with regards to soft fruit which are handled and rarely washed prior to consumption (Koopmans, 2008). Both hepatitis A and Norwalk-like viruses (NLV) have been implicated in cases of foodbome illness associated with contaminated vegetables (Koopmans, 2008). In such outbreaks, the crops had been directly exposed to sewage or had been handled by infected workers (Holtby et al., 2001 Long et al., 2002). 

Holtby, I., Tebbutt, G. M., Green, J., Hedgeley, J., Weeks, G., and Ashton, V. (2001). Outbreak of Norwalk-like virus infection associated with salad provided in a restaurant. Commun. Dis. Public Health 4, 305-310. 

E. coli and enterococci have been isolated front citrus juices, and apple juice has been associated with Cryptosporidiosis. Contamination by hepatitis A and Norwalk-like viruses has been reported in fruit juices (Vasavada, 2003). 

Schwab, K. J., Neil, F.H., and Fankhauser, R.L. 2000. Development of method to detect Norwalk-like viruses (NLVs) and Hepatitis A in delicatessen foods Application to a food-borne NLV outbreak. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66, 213-218. 

Daniels, N.A., Bergmire-Sweat, D.A., Schwab, K.J., et al. 2000. A foodbome outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with Norwalk-like viruses First molecular traceback to deli sandwiches contaminated during preparation. Journal of Infectious Diseases 181 1467-1470. 

Calicivirus, or Norwalk-like virus is an extremely common cause of foodborne illness, though it is rarely diagnosed, because the laboratory test is not widely available. It causes an acute gastrointestinal illness, usually with more vomiting than diarrhea, that resolves within two days. Unlike many foodborne pathogens that have animal reservoirs, it is believed tltat Norwalk-like viruses spread primarily from one infected person to another. Infected kitchen workers can contaminate a salad or sandwich as they prepare it, if they have the virus on their hands. Infected fishermen have contaminated oysters as they harvested them. 

Bertolotti-Ciarlet, A., White, L. J., Chen, R., Prasad, B. V., and Estes, M. K. (2002). Structural requirements for the assembly of Norwalk virus-like particles. /. Virol. 76, 4044- 1055. 

There are many possible causes of acute diarrhea, but infection is the most common cause. Infectious diarrhea occurs because of food and water contamination via the fecal-oral route. Viruses are the cause in a large proportion of cases. Likely viral suspects include Rotavirus, Norwalk, and adenovirus. Patients usually exhibit sudden low-grade fever, vomiting, and watery stools. 

Lithium toxicity occurred in an elderly patient who had a Norwalk virus-like infection 6 days before... 

Ball, J.M. Graham, D.Y. Opekun, A.R. Gilger, M.A. Guerrero, R.A. Estes, M.K. Recombinant norwalk virus-like particles given orally to volunteers phase I study (see comments). Gastroenterology 1999,117, 40-48. 

Tuber Potato Carrot Arizona State University/Boyce Thompson I. Human papillomavirus like particles, Norwalk virus antigen 101, 240... 

In addition to the viruses mentioned above, some other viral pathogens are noticeable, of which several are profiled herewith as varitype representatives Rift Valley fever, yellow fever, Norwalk, and hepatitis A. The smallpox virus is presented later. Notably, the handling of viruses is much more complicated then that of bacteria hence, it is less likely to be mastered by terrorist organizations, individuals, or perpetrators, with reference being made to the viruses mentioned below as well as others. 

Three ieosahedral viruses emerged as useful templates with eage-like architectures for nanotechnology cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) and cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) and Norwalk virus (NV) (Fig. 2). CCMV and CPMV are both plant viruses, while NV is an animal virus. 

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