Measurement problem solving

Progress in mean of modelisation and inverse problem solving [1] let us hope to dispose soon of these tools for flaws 3D imaging in Non Destructive Control with eddy current sensors. This will achieve a real improvement of the actual methods, mainly based upon signature analysis. But the actual eddy current probes used for steam generators tubes inspection in nuclear industry do not produce the adequate measurements and/or are not modelisable. 

To solve the measurement problem and obtain quantitative results (retardation, magnitude of the residual strain, etc.), various techniques are used. An example is using a very simple device known as a wedge compensator (ASTM D 4093). It is placed between the... 

Level 2 Identification of the programme of measures to solve each problem or to regulate the responsible activities. It should be looked for the broad relationships among problems-causes-measures. A justification of how each measure can solve a problem should be provided. 

The logical approach to problem solving for rubber analysis at Polysar Ltd was described by Chu [73] (cf. Schemes 2.4 and 2.5). Systematic analysis involves sampling, elimination of interference and measurement. Methods employed include chromatography (GC, HS-GC, HPLC, SEC, IC), spectroscopy (AAS, UV/VIS, IR, NMR), MS, microscopy and thermal analysis. The specific role of each of these techniques for the analysis of rubber compounds with or without... 

Raman spectroscopy has enjoyed a dramatic improvement during the last few years the interference by fluorescence of impurities is virtually eliminated. Up-to-date near-infrared Raman spectrometers now meet most demands for a modern analytical instrument concerning applicability, analytical information and convenience. In spite of its potential abilities, Raman spectroscopy has until recently not been extensively used for real-life polymer/additive-related problem solving, but does hold promise. Resonance Raman spectroscopy exhibits very high selectivity. Further improvements in spectropho-tometric measurement detection limits are also closely related to advances in laser technology. Apart from Raman spectroscopy, areas in which the laser is proving indispensable include molecular and fluorescence spectroscopy. The major use of lasers in analytical atomic... 

From the pros and cons of the discussed measures to solve the migration problems of mineral oil from packaging material into foodstuff, the following consequences in the opinion of the authors are derived ... 

Analytical chemistry is a problem-solving science. Independent from the concrete analytical method, the course of action, called analytical process, is always very similar. The analytical process starts with the analytical question on the subject of investigation and forms a closed chain to the answer to the problem. Using a proper sampling technique a test sample is taken that is adequately prepared and then measured. The measured data are evaluated on the basis of a correct calibration and then interpreted with regard to the object under study. 

Finally, it should be kept in mind that quantification is often problematic in surface analysis and characterization. Firstly because some techniques are not really suited for quantification, but also in cases such as infrared spectroscopy where one does not really know precisely how deep into the material one is probing. Although, there are many good examples of semi-quantitative applications that involve measuring relative band intensities that relate to changes in a surface property. However, for problem solving revealing qualitative differences is often sufficient information to be able to identify cause and move on to look for a potential solution. 

In summary, surface area measurements are relatively easy to obtain, and the technique can be applied to a wide variety of pharmaceutical applications. When used in conjunction with other techniques, it is a powerful problem solving technique. 

Beyond using measures that assess patterns and consequences of drug use, therapists and counselors may want to consider assessing other psychosocial factors that have been shown to be important in predicting successful (or unsuccessful) therapy and treatment outcomes (as discussed in Chapter 1). There are well-established measures for measuring psychosocial factors such as expectancies, mood and emotions, self-efficacy, the ability to problem solve and use... 

As discussed in Chapter 1, optimization of a large configuration of plant components can involve several levels of detail ranging from the most minute features of equipment design to the grand scale of international company operations. As an example of the size of the optimization problems solved in practice, Lowery et al. (1993) describe the optimization of a bisphenol-A plant via SQP involving 41,147 variables, 37,641 equations, 212 inequality constraints, and 289 plant measurements to identify the most profitable operating conditions. Perkins (1998) reviews the topic of plantwide optimization and its future. 

Jiang Hao, Hu Yuehua, Xu Jing, 2000. Electrochemical characteristics of couple electrode of galena-pyrite in different solutions. Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China, 10 87 - 88 Johnson, N. W. and Munro, P. D., 1988. h-pH measurements for problem solving in a zinc reverse flotation process. Austral Inst. Min. Metall., 239(3) 53 - 58 Karkovsky, I. A., 1957. Physicochemical properties of some flotation reagents and their salts with ions of heavy iron-ferrous metals. Proc. 2nd Int. Congr. Surface Activity, London, 4 225 - 237... 

With the exception of calibration, the measurement problems that were apparent in 1970, at the time of publication of the fost air quality criteria document on photochemical oxidants, have essentially been solved for ozone. This remarkable achievement is the result of unstinting efforts by people working at epa s National Environmental Research Center, North Carolina the National Bureau of Standards private research contractors sponsored primarily by epa private instrument manufacturers the Jet Propulsion Laboratory of the California Institute of Technology the Air and Industrial Hygiene Laboratory, California Department of Health the Air Pollution Research Center of the University of California at Riverside and the California Air Resources Board (carb). 

Problems 310 - 332 deal with more detailed analysis of NMR spectra - this tends to be a stumbling block for many students. There are two worked solutions (to problems 91 and 121) in an Appendix as an illustration of a logical approach to solving problems. However, with the exception that we insist that students perform all routine measurements first, we do not recommend a mechanical attitude to problem solving - intuition has an important place in solving structures from spectra as it has elsewhere in chemistry. 

Root cause analysis (RCA) is a class of problem solving methods aimed at identifying the root causes of problems or events. The practice of RCA is predicated on the belief that problems are best solved by attempting to correct or eliminate root causes, as opposed to merely addressing the immediately obvious symptoms. By directing corrective measures at root causes, it is hoped that the likelihood of problem recurrence will be minimized. However it is recognized that complete prevention of recurrence by a single intervention is not always possible. Thus RCA is often considered to be an iterative process and is frequently viewed as a tool of continuous improvement. 

For measurements at temperatures other than ambient, cells with double walls, which can be thermostatted, are also available commercially. If measurements are required at temperatures between ca. —5°C and room temperature, the sample compartment of the spectrometer can be flushed with dry air or nitrogen to reduce condensation on the cell windows. Below ca. — 5 °C the windows can be covered with a thin polythene film, but measurements below —25 °C are very troublesome. The problems associated with low temperature spectroscopic measurements were solved by enclosing the cell in an air-tight box fitted with glass windows (Dadley and Evans, 1967). The box was so designed that it fitted into the spectrophotometer and the air inside the box was dried with phosphoric oxide which, it is claimed, stopped condensation even at temperatures as low as — 60 °C glass windows could be used because only absorptions above 380 nm were of interest. 

Although it is not explicitly stated in the above quote, it was clear from Craig s interview that what he wanted were numerical examples. Other students made their preferences known in their responses during tutoring sessions. In a discussion of the differences between general chemistry and physical chemistry courses, the interviewer talked about problem-solving questions that involved calculating the density of a sample from measurements of the mass and volume of the sample. He then noted ... 

Too much caffeine is harmful for many people, and even small amounts cannot be tolerated by some unlucky individuals. How much caffeine is in a chocolate bar How does that amount compare with the quantity in coffee or soft drinks At Bates College in Maine, Professor Tom Wenzel teaches his students chemical problem solving through questions such as these.4 But, how do you measure the caffeine content of a chocolate bar ... 

This book is not intended to be an exhaustive treatise that discusses all substances of potential interest, but rather a discussion of selected substances that are of particular importance in describing the state and processes of the atmosphere and that have measurement problems that remain to be solved. The authors were asked to give an overview of the field, discuss the methods that are generally used, and, most importantly, discuss the measurement problems that still exist. 

Woracek, D. FiberOptic Sensors Endure Microwaves., InTech 24 (February 1991). Yazbak, G. Fiberoptic Sensors Solve Measurement Problems. Food Technology 76 (July 1991). 

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