Measurement of nuclear radiation

Leo, W. R. Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics Experiments, Springer, Berlin, 1987. O Kelley, G. D. Detection and Measurement of Nuclear Radiation, NAS-NS-3105, 1962. 

Beta radiation Electron emission from unstable nuclei, 26,30,528 Binary molecular compound, 41-42,190 Binding energy Energy equivalent of the mass defect measure of nuclear stability, 522,523 Bismuth (m) sulfide, 540 Blassie, Michael, 629 Blind staggers, 574 Blister copper, 539 Blood alcohol concentrations, 43t Body-centered cubic cell (BCC) A cubic unit cell with an atom at each comer and one at the center, 246 Bohrmodd Model of the hydrogen atom... 

The ability of nuclear radiation to eject electrons from atoms and ions can be used to measure its intensity. Becquerel first gauged the intensity of radiation by determining the degree to which it blackened a photographic film. The blackening results from the same redox processes as those of ordinary photography, such as... 

Because nuclear radiation varies considerably in energy, the potential to cause damage cannot be assessed simply by counting the number of emissions. The energy of emissions must also be taken into account. Furthermore, the three different t T)es of nuclear radiation affect human cells to different extents. When the amount, energy content, and t T)e of radiation are taken into account, the result is a measure of the effect of radiation on the human body. This is expressed using a unit called the rem. 

Geiger-Mtfller Counter or Tube. A common form of nuclear radiation detector, also serving for measuring the intensity of radiation such as of X-rays, y-rays, etc. It is particularly suitable for monochromatic beams. The device usually consists of a tubular cathode with a coaxial center wire anode, filled with a gas (such as argon plus oxygen or argon plus hydrogen) at less than arm pressure. 

Tsoulfanidis, N. Measurement and Detection of Nuclear Radiation, 2nd ed., Taylor and Francis, Washington, DC, 1983. Many detailed numerical examples. 

As mentioned at the beginning of this section, the primary ionization must be collected to make a direct measurement of the energy of nuclear radiation. Condensed phases have higher densities than gases and so provide more efficient stopping of the radiation per unit length. However, metals allow rapid recombination of the elec-tron/positive ion pairs and insulators inhibit the collection of the charge. Therefore, only semiconductors have been used extensively for radiation detectors. Metals and... 

Knowledge of the properties of nuclear radiation is needed for the measurement and identification of radionuclides and in the field of radiation protection. The most important aspect is the interaction of radiation with matter. 

Fenyves, E., and Haiman, O., The Physical Principles of Nuclear Radiation Measurements, Academic Press, New York, 1969. 

Radiation gauging pertains to the use of penetrating radiation, in particular as emitted from radionuclides or radioactive isotopes, for the measurement of particular properties of a material or system. Such properties may include density, thickness, mass, volume, composition, uniformity, etc. In addition to the use of nuclear radiation from radioisotopes instead of X-rays from machine generators, the other distinguishing difference from Radiography is that electronic detectors are employed instead of flhn to measure the transmitted or scattered radiation... 

In order to measure the absorption of nuclear radiation, the experiments must be performed in such a manner as to eliminate as many of the interfering factors as possible. Usually a well-collimated beam is used. This is illustrated in Figure 6.1 for a point radioactive source. The relation between the disintegration rate A and die count rate R is given by (4.45) ... 

The radiation detection systems employed in radioanalytical chemistry laboratories have changed considerably over the past sixty years, with significant improvement realized since the early 1980s. Advancements in the areas of material science, electronics, and computer technology have contributed to the development of more sensitive, reliable, and user-friendly laboratory instruments. The four primary radiation measurement systems considered to be necessary for the modern radionuclide measurement laboratory are gas-flow proportional counters, liquid scintillation (LS) counters. Si alpha-particle spectrometer systems, and Ge gamma-ray spectrometer systems. These four systems are the tools used to identify and measure most forms of nuclear radiation. 

Accurate energy measurements of gamma radiation produced in the nuclear reactions of deuterons and protons with light nuclei are reported in the following papers (i) Thomas, R. G., and T. Lauritsen Phys. Rev. 88, 969 (1952). A lens spectrometer study of gamma radiation from the bombardment of Li , C qis d O by deuterons and from... 

Activation analysis methodology is quite similar to other instrumental analysis methods that use energy sources of either light, heat, X rays, or electricity to irradiate a material to bring about the emission of characteristic radiations. The detection and measurement of these radiations can then be used to indicate the amount of an elemental species in the material. Activation analysis requires a source of nuclear particles, such as neutrons, charged particles, or gamma rays, to bombard (or irradiate) the sample material to make it radioactive. 

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