Measurement radiation

17 Write a balanced nuclear equation for the positron emission of each of the following radioactive isotopes  

20 Complete each of the following nuclear equations and describe the type of radiation  

One of the most common instmments for detecting beta and gamma radiation is the Geiger counter. It consists of a metal tube filled with a gas such as argon. When radiation enters a window on the end of the tube, it forms charged particles in the gas, which produce an electrical current. Each burst of current is amplified to give a click and a reading on a meter. 

A radiation technician uses a Geiger counter to check radiation levels. 

LEARNING GOAL Write a balanced nudear equation showing mass numbers and atomic numbers for radioactive decay. 

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Electron spin resonance (esr) (6,44) has had more limited use in coal studies. A rough estimate of the free-radical concentration or unsatisfied chemical bonds in the coal stmcture has been obtained as a function of coal rank and heat treatment. For example, the concentration increases from 2 X 10 radicals/g at 80 wt % carbon to a sharp peak of about 50 x 10 radicals/g at 95 wt % carbon content and drops almost to zero at 97 wt % carbon. The concentration of these radicals is less than that of the common functional groups such as hydroxyl. However, radical existence seems to be intrinsic to the coal molecule and may affect the reactivity of the coal as well as its absorption of ultraviolet radiation. Measurements from room... 

Hasegawa and Sato analyzed motion pictures and radiation measurements at a distance of 15 m from the center of the glass vessel. They then correlated, first, fireball duration and maximum diameter to initial fuel mass and, second, radiation to initial vapor pressure. 

Mlelenz, K. D., Ed. Optical Radiation Measurements Measurement of Photoluminescence Academic Mew York, 1982 Vol. 3. 

There is always some level of ambient radioactivity in an environment. This radiation is known as background radiation. Measure and record the background activity by recording the counts registered by the gamma ray detector in 30-s intervals for 5 min. Record the data in Data Table 1. 

Ionizing radiation measuring instruments containing, for purposes of internal calibration or standardization, one or more sources of byproduct material—exempt quantities of 241 Am 0.05 pCi NRC 2001 g 10CFR30.15(a)(9)... 

Counter, Geiger-Mueller (GM counter)—Highly sensitive, gas-filled radiation-measuring device to detect (count) individual photons or particulate radiation. 

The State of New Jersey has been able to correlate airborne radiation measurements to clusters of buildings with elevated indoor radon 49 In this study, researchers compared airborne y-ray spectrometer data with indoor radon data to see if any trends emerged. For the conditions in New Jersey,... 

Film samples were exposed to natural weathering conditions on an exposure rack constructed of wooden 2 X 4 s. The samples were mounted directly on a 2 X 4 facing south at an angle of 45° to the horizontal. A measure of the UV light received by the samples was originally obtained from New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (ENCON) reports, kindly supplied by Mr. William Delaware of ENCON. These reports included both total sun and sky radiation and UV radiation measured by Eppley radiometers (photometers). The ENCON monitoring station in Schenectady is within four miles of the exposure rack so no appreciable differences in light intensity should be expected. More recently, a UV radiometer has been mounted directly on the exposure rack to obtain more accurate measurements. 

Collect, analyze, develop, and disseminate in the public interest information and recommendations about (a) protection against radiation and (b) radiation measurements, quantities, and units, particularly those concerned with radiation protection ... 

Bigazzi, G., Ercan, T., Oddone, M., Ozdogan, M. and Yegingil, Z. (1993). Application of fission track dating to archaeometry provenance studies of prehistoric obsidian artifacts. Nuclear Tracks and Radiation Measurements 22 757-762. 

As illustrated in Fig. 7.15, the electromagnetic radiation measured in an XRF experiment is the result of one or more valence electrons filling the vacancy created by an initial photoionization where a core electron was ejected upon absorption of x-ray photons. The quantity of radiation from a certain level will be dependent on the relative efficiency of the radiationless and radiative deactivation processes, with this relative efficiency being denoted at the fluorescent yield. The fluorescent yield is defined as the number of x-ray photons emitted within a given series divided by the number of vacancies formed in the associated level within the same time period. 

Since the earth has temperature, it emits radiant energy called thermal radiation or planetary infrared radiation. Measurements by satellites show an average radiant emission from the earth of about 240 watts per square meter. This is equivalent to the radiation that a black body would emit if its temperature is at -19°C (-3°F). This is also the same energy rate as the solar constant averaged over the earth s surface minus the 30% reflected radiation. This shows that the amount of radiation emitted by the earth is closely balanced by the amount of solar energy absorbed and since the earth is in this state of balance, its temperature will change relatively slowly from year to year. 

Radioactivity Property or characteristic of radioactive material to spontaneously disintegrate with the emission of energy in the form of radiation measured in curies or becquerel. 

Nuclear Explosion Survival Rule 4 Stay below ground or in the center of a large building for as long as 14 days. Do not leave unless reliable radiation measurements and instructions for evacuation are provided. 

Nd YAG and the lifetime measurement is made by the use of the phase-locked detection of fluorescence lifetime (PLD) scheme. By reference to the use of the fluorescence lifetime measurement, the problems, in pyrometry, of emissivity, and sight path factor in the blackbody radiation measurement could be corrected in such a scheme having an internal self-calibration. ... 

Weatherhead, E. C., G. C. Tiao, G. C. Reinsel, J. E. Frederick, J. J. DeLuisi, D. Choi, and W.-K. Tam, Analysis of Long-Term Behavior of Ultraviolet Radiation Measured by Robertson-Berger Meters at 14 Sites in the United States, J. Geophys. Res. 102, 8737-8754 (1997). 

FIGURE 14-5 Annual mean radiation measured by satellite in 1988 at the top of the atmosphere as a function of latitude for incoming absorbed short-wavelength radiation and emitted outgoing long-wavelength radiation (adapted from Trenberth and Solomon, 1994). 

Radiation Measurements in Reaction Zone of Condensed Explosives. See Ref 73... 

Per-Anders Persson et al, "A Technique for Detailed Time-Resolved Radiation Measurements in the Reaction Zone of Condensed Explosives , 4thONRSympDeton(1965), 602-08. Preliminary experiments with nonporous 60/40-RDX/TNT and NMe (N it ro me thane) using a fast photomultiplier and high-speed oscilloscope are described. The technique permitted recording... 

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