Manganese dioxide, rechargeability

The basic characteristics of sealed alkaline manganese dioxide rechargeable cells when using voltage-limited taper current charging are given in Table 46.1 (based on a 6 h charge period). 

Secondary lithium-metal batteries which have a lithium-metal anode are attractive because their energy density is theoretically higher than that of lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-molybdenum disulfide batteries were the world s first secondary cylindrical lithium—metal batteries. However, the batteries were recalled in 1989 because of an overheating defect. Lithium-manganese dioxide batteries are the only secondary cylindrical lithium—metal batteries which are manufactured at present. Lithium-vanadium oxide batteries are being researched and developed. Furthermore, electrolytes, electrolyte additives and lithium surface treatments are being studied to improve safety and recharge-ability. 

The design of a AA-size alkaline manganese dioxide cell is shown in Fig. 1 (Sec. 3.1). Primary and secondary alkaline batteries are constructed in the same way and can be manufactured on essentially the same machinery. The separator material, electrode formulation, and the Mn02 Zn balance are different. Rechargeable cells are zinc-limited to prevent a discharge beyond the first electron-equivalent of the MnOz reduction. The electrolyte is 7-9 mol L KOH. The electrode reactions are ... 

The primary manganese dioxide-Zn battery industry still controls the small-battery market. The ratio between batteries and rechargeable batteries is still about 10 1, and although the global battery market will nearly double by the year 2001, this ratio will stay practically the same, because the primary market is estimated to grow by 70 percent (actually stealing only 2-3 percent from the primary market). 

J K. Kordesch, W. Harer, Y. Sharma, R. Uji, K. Tomantschger, D. Freeman, Rechargeable, alkaline zinc manganese dioxide batteries, 33rd Int. Power Sources Svmp., Cherry Hill, NJ, June 13-16,1988, 440 51. 

K. Kordesch, L. Binder, J. Gsellmann, E. Kharaman, G. Winkler, Manganese dioxide-hydrogen rechargeable battery, Power Sources 13 (Eds. T. Teily, B. W. Baxter), 1991, 273-284. 

K. Kordesch, J. Daniel-Ivad, Ch. Faistauer, High power rechargeable alkaline manganese dioxide-zinc batteries, 182nd Meeting of the Electrochem. Soc., Toronto, Oct., 1992, Extended Abstract 92-2, p. 18-18 (6 AA-bundle battery replacement of single D-cell). 

K. Kordesch, L. Binder, W. Taucher, C. Faistauer, J. Daniel-lvad, The rechargeable alkaline-zinc manganese dioxide system, Power Source 14, (Eds. Attewell, T. Keily), Internatl Power Sources Committee, 1993. 

K. Kordesch, S. Yuwei, Technology process of rechargeable alkaline zinc manganese dioxide batteries in Battery Bimonthly, 1995, 25, (Di-anchi Support Human Light Industry Research Institute). 

K. Kordesch, J. Daniel-Ivad, Rechargeable manganese dioxide batteries (recent chargers), Proc. 37th Power Sources Conf, Cherry Hill, NJ, June 17-20, 1996, pp. 436-439 K. Kordesch, C. Faistauer, D. Zhang (Patent Pending). 

Kordesch, Rechargeability of manganese dioxide I. C. samples, in 2nd Int. MnO Symp., Tokyo, I. C. MnO Sample Office, Cleveland, OH, 1981. 2... 

QCMB RAM SBR SEI SEM SERS SFL SHE SLI SNIFTIRS quartz crystal microbalance rechargeable alkaline manganese dioxide-zinc styrene-butadiene rubber solid electrolyte interphase scanning electron microscopy surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy sulfolane-based electrolyte standard hydrogen electrode starter-light-ignition subtractively normalized interfacial Fourier transform infrared... 

A lead-acid storage battery is only one type of battery, however. Different batteries use different metals and electrolytes to make them work. For example, alkaline batteries (the ones found in flashlights, toys, and portable electronic devices) contain powdered zinc and manganese dioxide as their electrodes. They use an electrolyte made of an alkaline solution of potassium hydroxide. Most alkaline batteries have a finite amount of chemicals in them. Once the chemicals react with one another, they are used up, and the battery goes dead (is discharged) and cannot be recharged. 

Manganese dioxide is the most extensively used electrode for different types of power sources (alkaline primary and rechargeable, lithium... 

Only a few of the thousands of proprosed battery systems have been commercialized. A set of criteria can be established to characterize reactions suitable for use in selecting chemical systems for commercial battery development. Very few combinations can meet all of the criteria for a general purpose power supply. The fact that two of the major battery systems introduced more than 100 years ago, lead acid (rechargeable) and zinc—manganese dioxide (primary), are still the major systems in their category is indicative of the selection process for chemical reactions that can serve the battery marketplace. 

Cadmium, along with nickel, forms a nickel-cadmium alloy used to manufacture nicad batteries that are shaped the same as regular small dry-cell batteries. However, a major difference is that the nicads can be recharged numerous times whereas the common dry cells cannot. A minor difference between the two types of cells is that nicads produce 1.4 volts, and regular carbon-zinc-manganese dioxide dry-cell batteries produce 1.5 volts. 

The manufacture of secondary batteries based on aqueous electrolytes forms a major part of the world electrochemical industry. Of this sector, the lead-acid system (and in particular SLI power sources), as described in the last chapter, is by far the most important component, but secondary alkaline cells form a significant and distinct commercial market. They are more expensive, but are particularly suited for consumer products which have relatively low capacity requirements. They are also used where good low temperature characteristics, robustness and low maintenance are important, such as in aircraft applications. Until recently the secondary alkaline industry has been dominated by the cadmium-nickel oxide ( nickel-cadmium ) cell, but two new systems are making major inroads, and may eventually displace the cadmium-nickel oxide cell - at least in the sealed cell market. These are the so-called nickel-metal hydride cell and the rechargeable zinc-manganese dioxide cell. There are also a group of important but more specialized alkaline cell systems which are in use or are under further development for traction, submarine and other applications. 

Gemeay AH, Nishiya H, Kuwabata S, Yoneyama H. Chemical preparation of manganese dioxide/poly-pyrrole composites and their use as cathode active materials for rechargeable lithium batteries. J Electrochem Soc 1995 142 4190-4195. 

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