Macroscopic characteristics

Although pressure is caused by molecular collisions, it is a macroscopic property, the collective result of countless collisions. We can get a feel for the macroscopic characteristics of gas pressure by examining Earth s atmosphere. 

Without specifying the dimensions and spatial configuration of the solvation shell, we will treat it in terms of its macroscopic characteristic, like of other dielectric materials. First, consider a polar solution, in which the solutes possess a constant dipole moment as is shown in Fig. 4. In each solvate of a solution, the immediate surroundings are polarized due to the dipole moment, /[Pg.201]

The model was validated by comparing the numerical results with experimental data for macroscopic characteristics flame zone dynamics and pressure growth... 

In the past decade, many new techniques have been developed and applied to the study of interfaces. While earlier measurements involved only macroscopic characteristics of the interface (e.g., surface charge, surface tension, and overall potential drop), new spectroscopic techniques have opened a window to the microstructure of the interface, and insight at the atomic level in this important region is now possible. Parallel to these discoveries and supported by them, more realistic theoretical models of the interface have been developed that combine quantum mechanical theories of metal surfaces and the statistical mechanics of solutions. 

Now consider the evolution in a situation as in fig. 34. There are three stationary macrostates 0fl, 0j>, c, of which 0a and 0C are locally stable and (j)b is unstable. Of course, even the pure macroscopist would not regard (j)b as a realizable state, on the ground that a system in (j>b would be caused to move into either 0a or 0C by the smallest perturbation. Systems having a macroscopic characteristic as in fig. 34 are called bistable . There are numerous examples the ones that occur most often in the literature are the laser (section 9 below), the tunnel diode 0, and the Schlogl reaction (X.3.6). The macroscopic rate equation for this reaction is... 

In spite of the potential advantages, useful organic NLO materials have not yet been developed because the necessary molecular and macroscopic characteristics have only recently begun to be understood. However, because bulk NLO properties in organic materials arise directly from the constituent molecular nonlinearities, it is possible to decouple molecular and supramolecular contributions to the NLO properties. One can then semiquantitatively predict relative macroscopic nonlinearities based on theoretical analyses of the individual molecules (7). Reliable predictions of this kind are vital for the efficiency of a program aimed towards developing new organic materials with tailored NLO properties. 

Equations for macroscopic characteristic of magnetic particles can be obtained by averaging of the corresponding microscopic quantities with a distribution function satisfying Eq. (4.27). For example, for the dimensionless magnetization (e) of an assembly of magnetically isotropic particles, where... 

In multilayered lattices, even in such ones, for which the macroscopic characteristics are not distinguished by an appreciable anisotropy (as, for example, HTSC type 1-2-3), the interaction between separate atoms or atomic groups can be strongly anisotropic. The "damping" interaction propagation between layers inherent in substances of the specified class may result in appreciable manifestation of such local anisotropy both in the phonon spectrum [15] and in the behaviour of some vibrationary characteristics, in particular the root-mean-square displacement of atoms from separate layers along various crystal directions. 

Experimental observations show that bituminous coals satisfy at least one important macroscopic characteristic of a cross-linked network they swell in numerous solvents without being dissolved by them even at high temperatures Cl, 6 9), unless thermal degradation or reaction occurs In the development of mathematical models to describe network behavior, crosslinks are assumed to be points (usually carbon atoms) or short bfudgeA (usually of molecular weight much smaller than Mc) whence three or more chains are initiated. 

It is clear that the macroscopic characteristics of the persistent chain can depend only on the combination (5.16) of the microscopic parameters i and 6. 

Progress is being made toward a theory of combustion synthesis. Much of the development to date has been based on classical combustion theory, where the emphasis is on the prediction of macroscopic characteristics, such as combustion front velocity and stability nature. Using this approach, a large number of impressive results have been obtained. However, the principal issues concerning the mi-crostructural aspects of the process have not been resolved. In this section, we present a variety of theoretical results, as well as some remaining problems and possible ways to approach them. 

The first type image we will discuss is the body-only type (labeled A in Figure 1). First the macroscopic characteristics will be discussed, then the microscopic characteristics, and finally the chemical characteristics. 

Macroscopic Characteristics. In white light, the scorches and bums vary from a light brown shading into a darker brown and finally into black. As indicated previously, the light scorch marks resemble the body-only image in the visible spectrum (4), but not under fluorescence (10). 

It should be pointed out that the lithotype classification for brown coal does not conform to that for black coal. To date, the International Committee for Coal Petrology (ICCP) has not finalized a brown coal lithotype classification however, it is generally agreed that a lithotype classification should be based on macroscopic characteristics that can be determined in open cut faces. This principle has been followed in classifying the Latrobe Valley coals according to a system developed and used by the State Electricity Commission of Victoria (SECV) (25). 

Our basic assumption of the intercorrelation of the migration coefficients and surface absorption coefficients to the migration through fissures is verified. However, a great deal of effort must be spent studying the effects of other solute species, the chemical nature of the plutonium itself, and the kinetics of the absorption process before any understanding of the macroscopic characteristics of the transport of plutonium can be reached. 

From the very beginning of the studies of gas-phase radiochemistry, the experimental adsorption enthalpies were examined for a possible relationship with the macroscopic characteristics of volatility. Shortly after it was reported [2] that a few investigated chlorides showed heats of adsorption (evaluated somewhat differently than today) equal to about two-thirds of their heats of vaporization. This roughly linear correlation took place for both molecular and ionic compounds in the range of the vaporization heat from 40 to 200 kJ mol-1. Since then, the adsorption enthalpies have been reported in the literature for many more chlorides and oxychlorides. The... 

Chemistry is the science of matter and its transformations, and life is its highest expression. [The objects of study in this new field are] supermolecules, well-defined, discrete oligo-molecular species that result from the mtermolecular association of a few components [and] supramolecular assemblies, polymolecular entities that result from the spontaneous association of a large undefined number of components into a specific phase having more or less well-defined microscopic organization and macroscopic characteristics. (Lehn, 1995, pp. 1, 7)... 

We have inferred the environments of cement formation in the Zia Formation by comparing microscopic and macroscopic characteristics with those of cements of known origin described in the literature. In this section we discuss known characteristics of vadose and phreatic cements, and use this as the basis for identification of cementation environments in the Zia Formation. 

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