Napoleon, Louis

Occasionally, authorities have taken draconian steps to retrofit an existing city. The redevelopment of Paris by the prefect of the Seine, Baron Haussmann, under Louis Napoleon was a grandiose public works program stretching from 1853 to 1869. Haussmann s vast scheme absorbed unprecedented amounts of public debt, uprooted tens of thousands of people, and could have been accomplished only by a single executive authority not directly accountable to the electorate. 

At the center of Louis Napoleon s and Haussmann s plans for Paris lay the military security of the state. The redesigned city was, above... 

Hence I submit that it is implausible to argue that the coup d etat is to be explained by the need of the bourgeoisie to be delivered from its own incapacity. Yet the incapacity can enter the explanation in a different way, as a condition enabling Louis Napoleon to take power without much resistance. This is how Marx considered the situation from the vantage point of 1871 ... 

Tm Oiaini grenades, with which an attempt was niaile to assassinate Louis Napoleon, were spherical shells containing powder and missiles, and having a large iiumbc. r of cones or nipples, each capped with u gun-cup. They were made m London. 

In 1854 Bessemer invented a rotating projectile for guns but the War Office, with characteristic aloofness, refused to have anything to do with it Louis Napoleon, later Napoleon 11, saw the value of the invention, being himself an authority on artillery, and offered to finance the necessary experiments. A chance remark by Commandant Minid — the inventor of the rifle of that name — that the new projectile would require a better gun than one of cast iron led Bessemer to consider the possibility of improving the then known methods of steel production. This led to his invention of the process already described, an account of which was presented to the British Association at their Cheltenham Meeting in 1856 under the title The Manufacture of Malleable Iron and Steel without Fuel . Sir Henry lived to the ripe age of 85, passing in 1898 at his residence in Denmark Hill, London. 

When Napoleon fell from power, however, Laplace carefully dissociated himself from the emperor. In the Senate, Laplace voted for the return of the Bourbon monarchy and absented himself from Paris in 1815 during Napoleon s brief hundred-day return from Elba. In 1817 Louis XVIII raised Laplace to the rank of marquis. Laplace remained loyal to the Bourbons for the rest of his life, and his 1826 refusal to sign a petition supporting freedom of the press condemned him as far as the liberals in the Academy were concerned. 

For these reasons, the transition from extracts to pure compounds has been advocated since the birth of modern medicine. Thus, the eminent pharmacist Charles Louis Cadet de Gassicourt (le premier pharmacien de Napoleon) already pledged this in the inaugural issue of the Bulletin de Pharmacie in 1809112 and, thanks to the efforts of generations of phytochemists, the transition could be considered complete, at least for heroic drugs a century later. 

News of Davy s success had traveled to France, where emperor Napoleon Bonaparte (1769—1821) grew concerned about the scientific reputation of his country. He ordered larger and better equipment built for his scientists. He wanted them to surpass Davy in his work on metals. This equipment was designed especially for two French chemists, Louis Jacques Thenard (1777-1857) and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778-1850). 

Under] the absolute monarchy, during the first revolution, under Napoleon, bureaucracy was only the means of preparing the dass rule of the bourgeoisie. Under the Restoration, under Louis Philippe, under the parliamentary republic, it was the instrument of the ruling class, however much it strove for power of its own. Only under the second Bonaparte does the state seem to have made itself completely independent. As against civil society, the state machine has consolidated its position so thoroughly that the chief of the Society of December 10 suffices for its head. ... 

We can thank Napoleon for bringing the concept of reaction reversibility to Chemistry. Napoleon recruited the eminent French chemist Claude Louis Berthollet (1748-1822) to accompany him as scientific advisor on the most far-flung of fl9 his campaigns, the expedition into Egypt in 1798. Once in Egypt, Berthollet noticed deposits of sodium carbonate around the edges of some the salt lakes found there. He was Bti already familiar with the reaction... 

Commercial mushroom tyrosinase was obtained from Sigma Chemical Company (St. Louis, MO). Fresh, frozen, or freeze dried mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) were supplied by the Campbell Institute for Research and Technology (Napoleon, OH). 

The simplest experiment on polarization was made much later (in 1808) hy the French engineer Etienne Louis Malus, who was in Napoleon s army. Fie reflected a heam of light at the surfaces of two unsilvered pieces of glass (see Fig. 3.9) and observed that when the two reflections are in the same plane, a high proportion of the light incident on the second mirror (M2) is reflected. If the mirror M2 is turned so that the second reflection is directed out of the plane of the paper, the... 

Fourcroy was ultimately disappointed in his ambitions, not achieving the academic rank to which he aspired (a decision based on politics rather than qualifications), and his health failed. He died at the age of 54, probably from a stroke. De Morveau remained an active revolutionary and voted for the execution of Louis XVI. In fact he served as president of the first Committee of Public Safety, but he was too moderate by some standards and was replaced. Away fighting the Austrians at the time of Lavoisier s trial (de Morveau helped to organize the first military air force in the form of crew-carrying reconnaissance balloons), he may not have known of Lavoisier s arrest until too late, or had he known he may not have been able to return in time to protest. After the Terror his scientific career, like Fourcroy s, continued to prosper. De Morveau also worked well with Napoleon and under Napoleon was administrator of the mints, retiring finally only after Waterloo. Even when the Bourbon monarchy was restored and many of those responsible for the execution of Louis XVI were exiled, de Morveau was allowed to remain in France where he died 6 months later. 

Like Davy, Gay-Lussac was also one of the new breed of professional chemists, but unlike Davy, Gay-Lussac crossed gracefully into the new era of collaborative work. Chemistry was getting to be so broad a body of knowledge that one person could hardly expect to be experienced in it all. Although chemists had worked in teams before, Gay-Lussac made the practice routine. When the news was received of Davy s isolation of potassium and sodium with a voltaic pile, Napoleon ordered a bigger voltaic pile to be built at the Ecole Polytechnique. Gay-Lussac and his coworker, Louis Jacques Thenard, were put in charge. 

Payen served the French Government as a member of various commissions. Louis Phillippe made him an officer of the Legion of Honor in 1847, and Napoleon III elevated him to commander in 1863. 

Berthollet returned to France with Napoleon in 1799, and purchased a country house just outside Paris at Arcueil. There, Berthollet established a chemical laboratory, where he allowed promising young chemists to work. Berthollet s most famous protege was Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778-1850), who commenced... 

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