Lithosphere carbon content

Indexes o and s define the ratio of the carbon isotopes in the sample and in the standard. A lithospheric carbonate material was accepted as standard. The closest to this zero point value belongs to standard sample NBS-19 (1.95%c). There are some other standard samples NBS-22 oil (—29.74%c), NBS-18 calcium carbonate (— 5.01%c). Usually 813C values for plants are in the range ( 15%o) to (— 30%c), and for oil (— 20%c) to ( 36%c). Atmospheric methane has the lowest content of 13C. Its 813C value is approximately —47%o. 

The amount of carbon estimated in the rocks of the lithosphere (Table 2.12) corresponds to about 3% carbon content. This is very close to the assumption by Gold (1999) of carbonaceous chondrite material which may comprises 20% of the material in the depth range between 100 and 300 km. In this material, carbon amounts to 5%. Hence this layer would provide some 3 lO g C from which only 2% have been released to provide the surface carbon. A supply of hydrocarbons at depth may thus provide CO2 in three different ways. One is through volcanic path-... 

The natural cycle of carbon involves compounds of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. A certain difference in the 13C isotope content exists between the samples, depending on their origin. To estimate the deviation from the average value of 13C isotope contents 8(%o) scale is used. The deviation may be calculated by Equation 5.14 ... 

A further assumption of the model is that liquid, solid, and gas phases are in equilibrium with one another. This assumption demands a relatively rapid and high degree of mixing of atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere. Under this assumption, the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere may be considered constant and equal to 3.5 X 10"4 atm. 

From available, though approximate, estimates, about 1023 g of carbon-containing gases are concentrated in the rocks of the Earth s crust and mantle (lithosphere) (Korstenshtein, 1984 Sokolov, 1971). This mass of carbon exceeds by approximately 104 times the amount present today in the biosphere (over the Earth surface). Between the biosphere and lithosphere there is a constant, very intensive exchange of carbon that is self-regulatory. From the data of Barenbaum (2000, 2002), due to the Le Chatelier principle (Krapivin et al., 1982), the content of mobile carbon in the system tries to attain a stable relationship ... 

Deines P., Harris J. W., and Gurney J. J. (1991a) The carbon isotopic composition and nitrogen content of lithospheric and asthenospheric diamonds from the Jagersfontein and Koffiefontein Kimberlite, South Africa. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 55, 2615-2625. 

The combined active biomass of all primary producers acts as a gigantic pump that concentrates inorganic carbon dispersed in both the atmosphere and hydrosphere and deposits it in the reduced organic form, (CH20) . A comparison between the average contents (%w/w) of carbon in the atmosphere (0.03), hydrosphere (0.0014) and lithosphere (0.16), as opposed to that of the biosphere (24.9), impressively illustrates the efficiency of the biological carbon pump (see Deevey, 1970). 

The concept of sodium ion batteries as an alternative to lithium ion batteries was voiced for the first time in 1993, but interest toward it has drastically increased only recently. The main cause for such interest is the relative scarcity of lithium resources. The estimated content of sodium in the lithosphere is 2.5%, which is almost three orders of magnitude higher than the content of lithium. (The content of sodium in the World Ocean exceeds the content of lithium by five orders of magnifude.) The world prices of the main raw material, lithium carbonate, are 20-30 times the prices of sodium carbonate. Besides, it is assumed that sodium ion batteries would operate at lower voltages as compared to lithium ion ones, which would provide an increase in their stability and safety. 

The strontium content in the lithosphere is ca. 370 mg/kg (i.e., ppm wt.), but, owing to its chemical reactivity, the metal does not occur free in nature. The chief strontium containing minerals are the sulfate celestite or celestine [SrSO, orthorhombic] and the carbonate strontianite [SrCOj, orthorhombic], but strontium traces can also be found in calcium and barium-containing minerals. Nevertheless, strontium minerals rarely concentrate in large ore deposits, and the chief ore is only represented by celestite because there are no known economically workable strontianite deposits. However, strontium occurs widely dispersed in seawater and in igneous rocks as a minor constituent of rock-forming minerals. 

The barium content in the lithosphere is ca. 500 mg/kg (i.e., ppm wt.), but, owing to its chemical reactivity, the metal does not occur free in nature. The chief barium-containing minerals are the sulfate barite or heavy spar [BaSO orthorhombic] and the carbonate with-erite [BaCO, orthorhombic). 

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