Literature survey , instrumentation

The computer age has brought about considerable innovation in the operation of laboratory instrumentation. One consequence of this is the wider acceptance and utilization of the optical microscope as a quantitative analytical instrument. A brief literature survey illustrates the diversity of disciplines and optical methods associated with the development of computer interfaced optical microscopy. This is followed by a description of how our methods of fluorescence, interferometry and stereology, nsed for characterizing polymeric foams, have incorporated computers. 

Baruthio et al. (1988) provided a detailed literature survey on determination of manganese in biological samples by GF-AAS comparing sample preparation, calibration and instrument settings. 

Geography in the service of Colonialism started early with Western science tools like the map and survey instruments. It celebrated a certain idea of history, and at the same time obscured the fundamental geographical and political reality empowering that idea. Literary critique has recently exposed the salutary vision of a world literature . .. and world empire commanded by Europe found in the works of early professional Geographers Halford Mackinder, George Chisholm, Georges Hardy, and others (Said, 1993 46). 

Scientific and technical literature provide a wealth of information on the detailed historical and technical developments of CL. Early reviews describing commercial apparatus appeared as early as 1968 [9], In this context it is important to cite the recent comprehensive set of survey updates written by Stanley since 1992 (see [5] and references therein). These include not only instruments but reagents or kits for CL or BL. They constitute an excellent source of information about commercial instrumentation. 

This review deals mainly with BL analytical applications in the last 10-15 past years, but some previous fundamental works are also listed. In Table 3 some fundamentals references of general interest and the findings of recent symposia on this topic are collected. In the journal Luminescence, the Journal of Biological and Chemical Luminescence (previously Journal of Bioluminescence and Chemiluminescence) are also reported surveys of the recent literature on selected topics (like ATP or GFP applications), instruments, and kits commercially available. 

This section describes characteristics and selection of commercially available spectral and photometric LIE process instruments. While a comprehensive assessment was the objective, the author acknowledges that some vendors and instruments may have been inadvertently omitted. Nevertheless, the following survey of LIE instruments suitable for process and field enviromnents was based on instruments defined within scientific literature and those actively marketed by common process analytical instrument vendors. Thus, emerging in-line LIE instruments is perhaps a potential gap within the following discussion. 

Accuracy, Precision, and Detection Limits — Analytical cost, accuracy, precision, and detection limits are the four main evaluation criteria for selecting an analytical method. Detection limit information will not be givdn here, as it is easily obtained from the literature or from instrument manufacturers. The analysis of NBS orchard leaves and bovine liver is often used to demonstrate the accuracy and precision of ICP analysis. We feel that the analysis of United States Geological Survey (USGS) and Canadian Centre for Mineral Energy Technology (CANMET) standard rocks, is a more rigorous test of ICP analytical accuracy because of the resistance to sample... 

A recent survey has shown that our first polymer standard samples are widely distributed and used in research and industry for the calibration of a variety of characterization instruments, particularly gel-permeation chromatographs. They also serve as materials with well defined properties for research in many areas. These properties should become better defined with time as results accrue in the literature. 

This review, which covers the literature up to mid-1968, presents the knowledge, which is available to date, concerning the molecular and electronic structure of pyrrole. It also surveys the spectroscopic and nonspectroscopic physical properties of pyrrole and its simple derivatives. During the past 25 years, as a result of developments and improvements in instrument design, the literature on the physicochemical properties of organic compounds has expanded rapidly. Mainly as a result of the instability or nonavailability of many compounds, however, the study of pyrroles has lagged somewhat behind... 

Blood and bloodstain analysis. The Aerospace Corporation has completed a survey and technical assessment of the state-of-the-art of forensic serological practices in the United States. Problems have been defined which currently limit the utilization of blood characterization techniques, and approaches have been identified which have the potential of solving these problems. This assessment was accomplished primarily through contacts with criminalistics laboratories, blood banks, industrial organizations which manufacture instrumentation and reagents for blood identification, and through an extensive search of the literature. 

The technique may be subject to a number of positive and/or negative systematic errors, depending on the element to be determined, the instrumental technique used, the matrix composition, and still other factors. However, as shown in Table 2.2, there is a tendency towards the use of the standard additions method and CRMs to minimize some possible matrix effects and to ensure validity of results. Nevertheless, it appears from the survey of the literature that the solubilization sampling introduction technique compares favorably with other atomic spectrometric methods for the determination of trace elements in a variety of matrices. 

In the past, although FTIR and ESCA were known to offer a great deal of information on specific chemical functional groups of surfaces, little application was made of these analytical tools in the field of conservation and restoration science and technology. A survey of instrumental analysis citations since 1953 in the conservation literature showed that only one FTIR work was published in Studies in Conservation in 1977 and two ESCA papers were published in Archaeometry in 1976. None appeared in Arts and Archaeology Technical Abstracts (AATA). 

No attempt has been made to survey comprehensively the wide and diverse field of ellipsometry applications, as several such reviews are available. A most important area which has hardly been mentioned, for example, is that of corrosion and a review of the field up to 1972 is provided by Kruger [26]. Another useful review covers a wider range of the literature up to about 1978 [27]. For semiconductor applications, with emphasis on later developments in the theory of multilayer structures, two reviews by Aspnes can be recommended [22, 28]. The proceedings of the international conferences on ellipsometry are an excellent source of information on developments in instrumentation, theory, and applications in all areas of surface physics and chemistry [29-33],... 

T wo reports of the presence of antimony in petroleum have appeared in the literature both studies used instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) as the analytical technique. In one study antimony was found in unspecified amounts in five of the 20 crude oils which were surveyed (I) in the other, antimony was found in 10 crude oils in amounts ranging from 30 to 107 ng/g (2). 

This book is intended as an introduction to the basic methods and instrumentation of laser spectroscopy. The examples in each chapter illustrate the text and may suggest other possible applications. They are mainly concerned with the spectroscopy of free atoms and molecules and are, of course, not complete, but have been selected from the literature or from our own laboratory work for didactic purposes and may not represent the priorities of publication dates. For a far more extensive survey of the latest publications in the broad field of laser spectroscopy, the reader is referred to the proceedings of various conferences on laser spectroscopy [1.1-1.10] and to textbooks or collections of articles on modem aspects of laser spectroscopy [1.11-1.31]. 

Whenever a process engineer uses flow property data, he should know on what instrument and how these data were determined in order to properly assess the validity of the data. Instruments to determine flow properties are generaliy referred to as rheometers. The rheometers that wiii be briefly described in the next few sections are the capiiiary rheometer, the meit indexer, the cone and plate rheometer, the slit die rheometer, and dynamic mechanicai rheometers. For a more detailed description of these and other rheometers, the reader is referred to the literature [64-66]. A brief but good survey of commerciai rheometers was presented by Dealy [92]. 

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