Interspecific behaviors

The purpose of this experiment is to examine the role of ants in the life of aphids. Although chemical stimuli play an important role in their interactions, here we focus on the results of these interspecific behaviors. Nevertheless, the observer can try to gently touch an aphid with a pair of fine tweezers and observe the responses of ants and other aphids over a distance, presumably in response to an alarm odor. 

ASCOLICHRISTENSEN, A., SALOM, S.M., PAYNE, T.L., Olfactory receptor cell responses of Ips grandicollis (Eichhoff) (Coleoptera Scolytidae) to intraspecific and interspecific behavioral chemicals, J Chem. Ecol, 1993,19, 699-712. 

Exudation occurs in response to environmental constraints, especially P deficiency (e.g., Jones 1998 Hinsinger et al. 2003) and differs depending on the P-form (Lambers et al. 2002) and plant species (Nuruzzaman et al. 2006). Banksia grandis exuded citrate, malate, and trans-aconitate when supplied with aluminium-phosphate. It exuded less of these tricarboxylates and dicarboxylates, but instead lactate and acetate, when supplied with iron-phosphate (Lambers et al. 2002). Plant species differ in their abilities to use various P species (van Ray and van Diest 1979), which can be due to differences in their exudation behavior (Nuruzzaman et al. 2006) and acidification of the root zone (Haynes 1992). This can influence the interspecific competition and coexistence of species, as we will discuss later. 

The importance of that "talent" is evident in the facts that behavior mediated by olfaction is often concerned with intraspecific and interspecific communication or recognition and that olfactory input can have profound effects on the behavioral state of the animal (11). 

Pohnert G, Steinke M, Tollrian R (2007) Chemical cues, defence metabolites and the shaping of pelagic interspecific interactions. Trends Ecol Evol 22 198-204 Prince EK, Lettieri L, McCurdy KJ, Kubanek J (2006) Fitness consequences for copepods feeding on a red tide dinoflagellate deciphering the effects of nutritional value, toxicity, and feeding behavior. Oecologia 147 479 188... 

The terminology used in this research area is not well established in the chemical community while the term pheromone is widely known, semio-chemical is not. Nevertheless, chemicals used in the communication between individuals are correctly called semiochemicals recently the equivalent term infochemicals was introduced. These compounds can be further divided into pheromones, compounds used in communication between individuals of the same species, while allelochemicals serve interspecific communication. Most pheromones are releasers, i.e. they provoke a behavioral change in the receiver. More rare are primers, which provoke physiological changes. Allelochemicals can be divided into kairomones, which are advantageous for the receiver, while the emitter benefits from allomones. Synomones are advantageous for both the emitter and the receiver. 

Vickers, N. J., Christensen, T. A., Mustaparta, H. and Baker, T.C. (1991). Chemical communication in heliothine moths. III. Flight behavior of male Heliocoverpa zea and Heliothis virescens in response to varying ratios of intra- and interspecific sex pheromone components. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 169 275-280. 

Cobb M., Burnet B. and Connolly K. (1988) Sexual isolation and courtship behavior in Drosophila simulans, D. mauritiana, and their interspecific hybrids. Behav. Genet. 18, 211-225. 

The external cuticle of insects is covered by a waxy layer composed of mixtures of hydro-phobic lipids that include long-chain alkanes, alkenes, wax esters, fatty acids, alcohols, aldehydes, and sterols. The primary purpose of this layer is to maintain water balance and prevent desiccation, as described in Chapter 6, but many of the cuticular lipid components have important secondary roles as intraspecific contact chemical signals (pheromones). These roles include species and sex recognition during reproductive interactions, and nestmate recognition and other colony organization functions in social insects. Thus, these compounds are essential mediators of insect behaviors. Cuticular compounds are also exploited by parasitoids and predators as interspecific contact cues (kairomones) to aid in host location. 

Errard, C. (1994a). Development of interspecific recognition behavior in the ants Manica rubida and Formica selysi (Hymenoptera Formicidae) reared in mixed-species groups. J. Insect Behav., 7, 83-99. 

Behavioral and evolutionary roles in Diptera Interspecific variation and evolutionary effects... 

In either case a pheromone identification should be followed by an investigation of the response of other species to synthetic compounds, blends, isomers, enantiomers, etc., and comparison of the results with the natural interspecific responses or behavior. Additionally, odors from host plants or pheromones of other species may affect the response of members of a species to their pheromones. 

For a variety of reasons, some of which have already been discussed, we can often learn more about a communication system by studying the pheromones and related behavior of several members of a genus or family than by an in-depth study of a single species. The Interspecific interactions are often quite subtle but very important. For example, the importance of enantiomers or stereoisomers may only become evident after investigating the responses of several closely related species to a pheromone or pheromone blend. 

The past two decades have seen enormous advances in our understanding of crustacean chemical communication. Nevertheless, our knowledge is still in its infancy when compared to insects, fish, or mammals. Most research on crustacean behavior in response to chemical stimuli has been conducted in controlled laboratory environments, where often only one stimulus context is tested. For example, the responses of numerous crustacean species to chemicals emitted by potential mates, by conspecific aggressors, or by interspecific enemies have been tested in... 

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