Insulin drug

Jackson AJ. Intramuscular absorption and regional lymphatic uptake of liposome-entrapped insulin. Drug Met Disp 1981 9 535. 

It should be noted that additional negative side effects factually exist Black outs, comas, and death to name a few. Insulin drugs were the most dangerous drugs utilized by athletes. FACT ... 

Al-Achi, A., and R. Greenwood. 1998. Erythrocytes as oral delivery systems for human insulin. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 24 67. 

Shenoy, D. B., D Souza, R. J.,Tiwari, S. B., and Udupa, N. (2003), Potential applications of polymeric microsphere suspension as subcutaneous depot for insulin, Drug Dev. Ind. 

Insulin-Drug Interactions Many drugs alter blood glucose levels. Increased glucose renders diabetes control difficult, even with insulin. Decreased blood glucose levels may precipitate hypoglycemic episodes. 

Priborsky, J., Takayama, K., Nagai, T., Waitzova, D., and Elis, J. (1987). Combination effect of penetration enhancers and propylene glycol on in vitro transdermal absorption of insulin. Drug. Des. Deliv., 2 91-97. 

Fonte, P., Nogueita, T., Gehm, C., Ferreira, D., Sarmento, B., 2011. Chitosan-coated solid lipid nanoparticles enhance the oral absorption of insulin. Drug Delivery and Translational... 

Before describing these regulatory landscapes, it is important to note that both the FDA and EMA have made it clear that the requirements for prospective exclusion of unacceptable cardiovascular risk do not apply to the development of insulin drugs and insulin analogues. The FDA document notes explicitly that the absolute deficiency of insulin in patients with type 1 diabetes dictates the need for insulin therapy as an immediate lifesaving treatment for which evaluation of long-term cardiovascular risk may not be practical (FDA 2008). 

Disulfides. As shown in Figure 4, the and h-chains of insulin are connected by two disulfide bridges and there is an intrachain cycHc disulfide link on the -chain (see Insulin and other antidiabetic drugs). Vasopressin [9034-50-8] and oxytocin [50-56-6] also contain disulfide links (48). Oxidation of thiols to disulfides and reduction of the latter back to thiols are quite common and important in biological systems, eg, cysteine to cystine or reduced Hpoic acid to oxidized Hpoic acid. Many enzymes depend on free SH groups for activation—deactivation reactions. The oxidation—reduction of glutathione (Glu-Cys-Gly) depends on the sulfhydryl group from cysteine. 

Amylin [106602-62-4] (75) (Fig. 4) is a 37-amino acid peptide having approximately 46% sequence similarity to CGRP (33). Amylin is present ia pancreatic P-ceUs along with insulin. It may function as a hormone ia glucoregulation and has been proposed as an etiologic factor ia certain forms of diabetes. Amylin is also present ia dorsal root ganglia (see INSULIN AND OTHER ANTIDIABETIC DRUGS). 

Insulin and Amylin. Insulin is a member of a family of related peptides, the insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), including IGF-I and IGF-II (60) and amylin (75), a 37-amino acid peptide that mimics the secretory pattern of insulin. Amylin is deficient ia type 1 diabetes meUitus but is elevated ia hyperinsulinemic states such as insulin resistance, mild glucose iatolerance, and hypertension (33). Insulin is synthesized ia pancreatic P cells from proinsulin, giving rise to the two peptide chains, 4. and B, of the insulin molecule. IGF-I and IGF-II have stmctures that are homologous to that of proinsulin (see INSULIN AND OTHER ANTIDIABETIC DRUGS). 

Oral hypoglycaemic agents Oral blood glucoselowering drugs Insulin secretagogues Antihypergly-caemics... 

Antidiabetic Drugs other than Insulin. Table 1 Classes of antidiabetic drugs other than insulin and their main mechanisms of action... 

Antidiabetic Drugs other than Insulin. Figure 1 Sulphonylureas stimulate insulin release by pancreatic (3-cells. They bind to the sulphonylurea receptor (SUR-1), which closes Kir6.2 (ATP-sensitive) potassium channels. This promotes depolarisation, voltage-dependent calcium influx, and activation of calcium-sensitive proteins that control exocytotic release of insulin. 

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