Industrial scale processes

The plutonium usually contains isotopes of higher mass number (Fig. 1). A variety of industrial-scale processes have been devised for the recovery and purification of plutonium. These can be divided, in general, into the categories of precipitation, solvent extraction, and ion exchange. 

The development section serves as an intermediary between laboratory and industrial scale and operates the pilot plant. A dkect transfer from the laboratory to industrial-scale processes is stiH practiced at some small fine chemicals manufacturers, but is not recommended because of the inherent safety, environmental, and economic risks. Both equipment and plant layout of the pilot plant mirror those of an industrial multipurpose plant, except for the size (typically 100 to 2500 L) of reaction vessels and the degree of process automation. 

B. Pyrmonen, Proceedings of the Symposium on Industrial-Scale Process Chromatography Separations, New Orleans, La., Mai. 27—30,1996. 

Azabicyclo[2.2.1]hept-5-en-3-one, a bicyclic y-lactam, is an intermediate for the synthesis of antiviral carbocyclic nucleosides (Figure 6.41). This compound was resolved using a cloned lactamase in an industrial-scale process [106,107]. 

The advantages of such biotransformation processes are (1) the relatively high yields which can be achieved with specific enzymes, (2) the formation of chiral compounds suitable for biopharmaceuticals, and (3) the relatively mild reaction conditions. Key issues in industrial-scale process development are achieving high product concentrations, yields and productivities by maintaining enzyme activity and stability under reaction conditions while reducing enzyme production costs. 

Felcht reports that the testing of industrial-scale processes can be performed with low expenditure by using micro reactors, since this should result in a faster time to market of the development [137]. He also sees uses for micro reactors at the laboratory scale as a means of high-throughput screening and model examinations such as fast determination of reaction kinetics. 

These micro reactors do not have real micro channels, but rather have holes, in the case of the pgauze, or create microflow conduits, by placing a thin wire in a micro channel. Especially the first concept is derived from laboratory and industrial-scale processing of extremely fast reactions. 

A summary of the industrial-scale process development for the nitrilase-catalyzed [93] route to ethyl (/ )-4-cyano-3-hydroxy-butyrate, an intermediate in the synthesis of Atorvastatin (Pfizer Lipitor) from epichlorohydrin via 3-hydroxyglutaronitrile (3-HGN) was recently reported (Figure 8.15) [94], The reaction conditions were further optimized to operate at 3 m (330 gL ) substrate, pH 7.5 and 27 °C. Under these conditions, 100% conversion and product ee of 99% was obtained in 16 h reaction time with a crude enzyme loading of 6% (based on total protein, 0.1 U mg-1). It is noted that at pH < 6.0 the reaction stalled at <50% conversion and at alkaline pH a slowing in reaction rate was observed. Since the starting material is of low cost and the nitrilase can be effectively expressed in the Pfenex (Pseudomonas) expression system at low cost, introduction of the critical stereogenic center... 

Before achieving the development of an industrial scale process, the research must follow different stages. First of all, the researchers have as an objective to demonstrate that the WRF are capable of degrading different families of emerging pollutants. Most of the studies have been carried out in liquid media, and a review is presented in Chaps. 6, 7, and 8. 

Karl Bosch (1874-1940) and Alwin Mittasch (1869-1953) of Badische Anilin- und Soda-Fabrik eliminated the nitrate shortage that occurred after the British sea blockade effectively cut off the nitrate supply from Chile. By May of 1915, they had successfully developed at their Oppau Plant an industrial-scale process for oxidizing ammonia. Their process converted the large quantities of synthetic ammonia produced by the Haber process to nitric acid and other nitrates that were essential for fertilizers and explosives. (10)... 

Drying, usually by physical methods, is one of the most common unit operations in both laboratory or industrial scale process chemistry, and since heating is usually employed to remove volatiles, thermally unstable materials may decompose if overheated. As a light-hearted example, when a faulty oven thermostat led to overheating of mercuric thiocyanate, a monstrous Pharaoh s serpent resulted. Drying moist cadmium propionate in an electric oven led to explosive ignition of the diethyl ketone vapour produced as an unforeseen by-product. Drying 3,5-dinitro-2-toluamide had more serious consequences. 

Schofield, F. Use of a range of tests to determine detonation capability, localised thermal decomposition, thermal stability of reaction masses and effects of prolonged storage translation of these results to industrial-scale processing operations. 

Welzbacher, C.R. and Rapp, A.O. (2002). Comparison of thermally treated wood originating from four industrial scale processes-durability. International Research Group on Wood Preservation, Doc. No. IRGAVP 02-40229. 

Reaction of sulfonamide 145 with /-BuOCl in 7-propyl acetate affords A -chlorinated sulfonamide 146 in 92% yield (Equation 21) <2005TL1099>. These conditions provide an attractive industrial-scale process for Bu OCl formation, as this oxidant is created in situ upon the slow addition of NaOCl to a solution of /-BuOH and AcOH, thereby reducing heat generation. 

Byproducts of large industrial-scale processes are valorized for instance, in the DuPont process for adiponitrile, the byproduct a-methylglutaronitrile is upgraded to p-picoline and further to niacinamide. 

A process of cross-linking of natural rubber latex has been developed to where it should be soon ready for an industrial-scale process.149 The irradiation is performed in aqueous media by electron beam without a prorad ( sensitizer ) at a dose of 200 kGy (20 Mrad) or, in the presence of n-butyl acrylate at considerably lower doses, typically 15 kGy. The cross-linked film exhibits physical properties comparable to those obtained from sulfur-cured (vulcanized) film. 

Early contributions to the oxidation of n-alcanols at nickel hydroxide electrodes have been described elsewhere More recent work is summarized in Table 1. Newer applications of the electrode, especially to the oxidation of 2,3 4,6-di-O-isopropylidene-L-sorbose (/) to L-gulonic acid (2), a step in a commercial vitamin C synthesis, were started by Vertes The development of the latter conversion to an industrial scale process was achieved by Robertson and Seiler . The mechanism... 

Single stirred-tank reactors were run in the first industrial scale processes to manufacture LDPE. Today they are used only for plants having lower capacities. The design of a single autoclave is shown in Fig. 5.1-6. It consists of a thick-walled forged-, or two-layer shrunk mantle. The ratio of inside length to inner diameter is typically in the range of one to two, and the volume is 1 - 2 m3. 

Laboratory and industrial-scale processes show that acetylene is one intermediate in carbon formation in the combustion of petroleum hydrocarbons. This is not only a result of thermal decomposition but a part of the complex of reactions occurring in the oxidation system. Steps resulting in the immediate production of acetylene seem to be molecular decomposition of molecules, or free radicals, or dehydrogenation, followed by combination or addition of oxygen. Peroxide formation may occur also. These reactions may be a general source of the hydrocarbon flame bands. 

The selective extraction of hafnium from thiocyanate media into diethyl ether was first reported in 1947.300.30i xhe technique was subsequently investigated extensively in the USA with a view to the development of a suitable industrial-scale process, it being found advantageous for MIBK to be used as the solvent in place of diethyl ether.302 The first commercial plant was completed in 1952,303 ancj the process has since been used widely in the USA, England, France, Germany and Japan. Several descriptions of the process have been given in the literature.287-289 303-305... 

The production of penicillin represents one of the most remarkable examples of the successful scale-up of a laboratory-scale cultivation of a microorganism into a profitable industrial-scale process. 

Table 2.2 Comparison of conditions for laboratory- and industrial-scale processes.

Laboratory-scale processes Industrial-scale processes... 

Using statistical moments to describe grinding in a ball mill for industrial-scale process... 

See T. R. Elliott, M. L. Luyben, and W. L. Luyben, Application of the capacity-based economic approach to an industrial-scale process, Ind. Eng Chem. Research 36, 1727 (1997). 

DSM has developed a general, industrial-scale process for the production of either l- or D-amino acids through the hydrolysis of the amide (Scheme 2.22).75 78 The product amino acid and untouched amide are easily separated. The amide can be recycled. The resolution method has been extended to a,a-disubstituted of which L-methyl-dopa (14) is an example.79... 

Fig. 7.6. Industrial-scale processing condensation of adipic acid (B) and ammonia to adipic acid diamide (D) and its thermal dehydration to adipic acid dinitrile (C). On a very large scale, adipic acid dinitrile is hydrated to give 1,6-diamino-hexane ("hexamethylenedi-amine ), which is further processed to furnish nylon-6,6 ("nylon").

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