Human immunodeficiency virus resistance

Schinazi RF, Lloyd RM Jr, Nguyen M-H, Cannon DL, McMillan A, Ilksoy N, Chu CK, Liotta DC, Bazmi HZ, Mellors JW. Characterization of human immunodeficiency viruses resistant to oxathiolane-cytosine nucleosides. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993 37 875-881. 

Gu Z, Gao Q, Fang H, Salomon H, Pamiak MA, Goldberg E, et al. Identification of a mutation of codon 65 in the IKKK motif of reverse transcriptase that encodes human immunodeficiency virus resistance to 2, 3 -dideoxycytidine and 2, 3 -dideoxy-3 -thiacytidine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994 38 275-281. 

Rana, S., Besson, G., Cook, D. G., Rucker, J., Smyth, R. J., Yi, Y., Turner, J. D., Guo, H.-H., Du, J.-D., Peiper, S. C., Lavi, E., Samson, M., Libert, F., Liesnard, C., Vassart, G., Doms, R. W., Parmentier, M., and Collman, R. G. (1997) Role of CCR5 in infection of primary macropahges and lymphocytes by macrophage-tropic strains of human immunodeficiency virus resistance to patient-derived and prototype isolates resulting from the delta CCR5 mutation. J. Virol. 71, 3219-3227. 

Saskova, K. G., Kozisek, M., Rezacova, P. et al. 2009. Molecular characterization of clinical isolates of human immunodeficiency virus resistant to the protease inhibitor darunavir. J. Virol. 83 8810-8818. 

Luban J (2007) Cyclophihn A, TRIM5, and resistance to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Virol 81 1054-1061... 

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In this chapter we describe the current insights into the evolution of viruses under pressure of antiviral therapy and the potential impact on viral fimess. As most recent work in this field has been done in the field of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), we use the evolution of this virus as the basis for the chapter. Subsequently, we describe resistance evolution for Hepatitis B virus (HBV), where large progress has been made in recent years. Furthermore, we describe the resistance development for Hepatitis C virus (HCV), for which a very active drug development program is undertaken by several pharmaceutical companies. Finally, we discuss resistance evolution for Influenza. 

De Meyer S, Azijn H, Surleraux D, Jochmans D, Tahri A, Pauwels R, Wigerinck P, de Bethune MP (2005) TMC114, a novel human immunodeficiency virus type 1 protease inhibitor active against protease inhibitor-resistant viruses, including abroad range of chnical isolates, Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49 2314-2321... 

Delwart EL, Pan H, Neumann A, Markowitz M (1998) Rapid, transient changes at the env locus of plasma Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 populations during the emergence fo protease inhibitor resistance. J Virol 72 2416-2421... 

Hertogs K, de Bethune MP, Miller V, Ivens T, Schel P, Van Cauwenberge A, Van Den Eynde C, Van Gerwen V, Azijn H, Van Houtte M, Peelers F, Staszewski S, Conant M, Bloor S, Kemp S, Larder B, Pauwels R (1998) A rapid method for simultaneous detection of phenotypic resistance to inhibitors of protease and reverse transcriptase in recombinant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolates from patients treated with antiretroviral drugs. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 42 269-276... 

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Perea S, JL Lopez-Ribot, WR Kirkpatrick, RK McAtee, RA Santillan, M Martinez, D Calabrese, D Sanglard, TP Patterson (2001) Prevalence of molecular mechanisms of resistance to azole antifungal agents in Candida albicans strains displaying high-level fluconazole resistance isolated from human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Antibicrob Agents Chemother 45 2676-2684. 

Catechins and proanthocyanidins have a documented antiviral activity. Catechins from an extract of Cocos nucifera husk fibre exhibited a strong inhibitory activity against acyclovir-resistant herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-l-ACVr) [62]. The use of 10 to 20ngml of ECG and EGCG has been reported to cause 50% inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcriptase [89], while Kara and Nakayama [90] reported that a patented chewing gum containing tea catechins is claimed to prevent viral infections against influenza and to inhibit dissemination of this virus. 

HIV genotype A type of resistance testing for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in which a patient s blood sample is obtained, their HIV RNA is sequenced, and mutations that have developed that may confer resistance to antiretrovirals are reported. 

HIV phenotype A type of resistance testing for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in which a patient s blood sample is obtained, and the patient s HIV genes that encode for reverse transcriptase and protease are removed and placed in an HIV viral vector. This viral vector is replicated in a cell culture system with varying concentrations of antiretrovirals. A drug concentration-viral inhibition curve is developed and the concentration needed to inhibit 50% of the patient s virus is reported. This is used to predict resistance versus susceptibility. 

Marozsan AJ, Kuhmann SE, Morgan T, et al. Generation and properties of a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolate resistant to the small molecule CCR5 inhibitor, SCH-417690 (SCH-D). Virology 2005 338(1) 182-199. 

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