History of chemistry. See

Partington is best known for his multi-volume series on the history of chemistry. See Butler, F. H. C. (1966/1967). Obituary James Riddick Partington. British Journal for the History of Science 3 70-72. 

For a comprehensive treatment on the history of chemistry, see, for example, J.R. Partington, A Short History of Chemistry, 3rd ed., Dover Publications, New York (1989) M.M. Pattison Muir, A History of Chemical Theories and Laws, New York (1907). 

One of the best overviews on the history of chemical substances is still the one contained in Hermann Kopp s history of chemistry (see Kopp [1966a] vols. 3 and 4) see also Multhauf [1966], For an overview of the history of the practical uses of materials, see also Fester [1923]. 

For an overview of the history of chemistry, see Bensaude-Vincent and Stengers, History of Chemistry and Brock, Norton History of Chemistry. 

For a general history of titrimetry, see the following sources. Kolthoff, I. M. Analytical Chemistry in the USA in the First Quarter of This Century, Anal. Chem. 1994, 66, 24IA-249A. Laitinen, H. A. Ewing, G. W., eds. A History of Analytical Chemistry. The Division of Analytical Chemistry of the American Chemical Society Washington, DC, 1977, pp. 52-93. 

For a full account, see Levere s book on the history of chemistry (Levere, 2001), from which information is borrowed in the present context. 

This chapter is based on the VSEPR and LCP models described in Chapters 4 and 5 and on the analysis of electron density distributions by the AIM theory discussed in Chapters 6 and 7. As we have seen, AIM gives us a method for obtaining the properties of atoms in molecules. Throughout the history of chemistry, as we have discussed in earlier chapters, most attention has been focused on the bonds rather than on the atoms in a molecule. In this chapter we will see how we can relate the properties of bonds, such as length and strength, to the quantities we can obtain from AIM. 

This has led to such cases in the history of chemistry that spectroscopic signals have been unidentified till newly discovered elements was found (e.g. rubidium, caesium, indium, helium, rhenium) or new species (highly ionized atoms, e.g. in northern lights [aura borealis], luminous phenomena in cosmic space and sun aura, such as nebulium , coronium , geocoronium , asterium , which was characterized at first to be new elements see Bowen [1927] Grotrian [1928] Rabinowitsch [1928]). 

For the classical "origins" statement in the history of science, see Herbert Butterfield s chapter, "The Postponed Scientific Revolution in Chemistry," in his The Origins of Modern Science, 13001800, rev. ed. (New York Free Press, 1957). 

A. W. Williamson, "Results of a Research on Etherification" and "Suggestions for a Dynamics of Chemistry Derived from the Theory of Etherification," reprinted in Papers on Etherification and on the Constitution of Salts (Edinburgh Alembic Club Reprints, 1929), no. 16, 517, 1824. See J. R. Partington, A History of Chemistry, 580, 672. 

See J. R. Partington, A History of Chemistry (New York Macmillan, 1964), IV 800, on Grimaux. And Robert Lespieau, "Poids moleculaires et formules developees," 8-page extract from Journal de Physique (June 1901) 34. 

The names enol and keto were invented by Julius W. Briihl in 1894. See J. R. Partington, History of Chemistry, IV 814. 

See Partington, A History of Chemistry, IV 856. Lowry published Optical Rotatory Power (London Longmans, 1935). See also Lowry, "La dispersion rotatoire optique Hommage a la memoire de Biot (17141862)," Conference faite le 9 decembre 1925 devant la Societe de Chimie Physique, JCP 23 (1926) 565585. 

Kipping, a Manchester native, studied with Roscoe and Schorlemmer, then spent a year (1886) in Munich at Adolf von Baeyer s laboratory where Perkin, Jr., was Privatdozent and von Baeyer s assistant. Kipping completed his London doctoral degree in 1887 and was Armstrong s assistant from 1890 to 1897. See Partington, A History of Chemistry, IV 851. And Robert Robinson, Memoirs, 2223. 

Rudolf Winderlich, 1876-1951. Advanced-studies adviser at the secondary school at Oldenburg in Oldenburg. Author of excellent textbooks containing valuable notes on the history of chemistry of the books Chemie und Kultur, Chemie fur Jedermann, and Das Ding and of many articles in educational journals. Contributor to Das Buch der grosscn Chemiker. See ref. (6Z). 

Edmund Oskar von Lippmann, 1857-1940. Austrian-German historian of chemistry and sugar chemist and technologist. Author of authoritative books on the chemistry and history of sugar, history of the magnetic needle, and history of alchemy and chemistry. Head of the large sugar refinery at Halle. Honorary professor of the history of chemistry at the University of Halle. See also ref. (87). 

Frank Burnett Dains, 1869-1948. Lecture assistant to Dr. W. O. Atwater at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, and later assistant professor at Northwestern University and professor at Washburn College in Topeka, Kansas. From 1911 until tire time of bis retirement in 1942 he was in charge of the department of organic chemistry at the University of Kansas, where he made notable contributions to the chemistry of the aldehydes, urea ethers, substituted ureas, thiazoles, imidazoles, and pyrazoles, and was an enthusiastic collector of books, portraits, and other memorabilia connected with the history of chemistry. He was a charter member of the Chicago Section of the American Chemical Society and served as Councilor of the Society, as Chairman of the Divisions of Organic Chemistry and History of Chemistry, and as contributing editor and abstractor for the Journal of Chemical Education. See also ref. (166). 

J.-B. Senac, Nouveau cours de chymie, suivant lesprincipes de Newton de Sthall [sic], 2 vols. (Paris, 1723). The book was published anonymously, but was usually attributed to Senac. See Partington, A History of Chemistry, vol. 3, 58. 

See Robert Siegfried, The Chemical Revolution in the History of Chemistry, Osiris 4 (1988) 34-50. 

Phil Trans. 98 (1808) 63 reprinted in Foundations of the Atomic Theory (Edinburgh Alembic Club Reprints, 1899), 41. Note that doubt has been cast upon the experimental basis of Thomson s deduction. See Mel Usselman, Multiple Combining Proportions the Experimental Evidence, in Instruments and Experimentation in the History of Chemistry, eds. Frederic L. Holmes and Trevor H. Levere (Cambridge, Massachusetts MIT Press, 2000), 243-262, at 254-258. 

The current paradigm in chemistry celebrates the existence of physical entities called chemical atoms (now known simply as atoms). John Dalton (1766-1844) looked at the material world in which he hved and visualized it in terms of a set of different material objects of small size and combining capacity (7). He called these particles atoms in his New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808). Others, such as Humphry Davy (1778-1829), were not yet willing to see the world in this way. Dalton combined both a partictrlar theory of nature and specific observatiorrs to arrive at his views. The present paper will examine some episodes in the history of chemistry that enabled other chemists to see atoms as appropriate chemical constituents of our world. The view of what constitutes a chemical atom has changed during the time period from 1808 to 2008, but the common theme requires a context in which actual measurements can be viewed as evidence for atoms. ... 

Marginalia enrich the pieces, making further connections to other fields, as well as explaining tangential concepts. Examples are given in Table IV. These sections are also meant to expose students to aspects of the history of chemistry and the biographies of chemists. Marginal materials also provide a multiplicity of entry points into the chemistry. Not every student will be excited by every area, but more students may see themselves connected to the field in this way. 

Using procedures such as those outlined in this section more than 100 proteins have been sequenced. This is an impressive accomplishment considering the complexity and size of many of these molecules (see, for example, Table 25-3). It has been little more than two decades since the first amino acid sequence of a protein was reported by F. Sanger, who determined the primary structure of insulin (1953). This work remains a landmark in the history of chemistry because it established for the first time that proteins have definite primary structures in the same way that other organic molecules do. Up until that time, the concept of definite primary structures for proteins was openly questioned. Sanger developed the method of analysis for N-terminal amino acids using 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene and received a Nobel Prize in 1958 for his success in determining the amino-acid sequence of insulin. 

For general accounts see W. H. Brock, The Fontana History of Chemistry (London Fontana Press, 1992), 508-569, and references therein M.J. Nye, From Chemical Philosophy to Theoretical Chemistry. Dynamics of Matter and Dynamics of Disciplines (Berkeley University of California Press, 1993), 139-223 R. E. Kohler, The Lewis-Lang-muir theory of valence and the chemical... 

See S. Weininger. What s in a name From designation to denunciation - the nonclassical cation controversy," Bulletin for the History of Chemistry 25 (2000) 123-131 and references therein C. Walling, "An innocent bystander looks at the 2-norbornyl cation, Accounts of Chemical Research 16 (1983) 448-454. 

Parts of this paper have been presented and discussed with colleagues at the Dibner Institute for the History of Science and Technology, the University of California at Berkeley, the University of Chicago, and Yale University. See my essays Laboratory Practice and the Physical Chemistry of Michael Polanyi, in F. L. Holmes and Trevor Levere, eds, Instruments and Experimentation in the History of Chemistry (Cambridge, MA. MIT Press, 2000), 367-400 and Michael Polanyi s Theory of Adsorption How Premature in Ernest Hook, ed., Prematurity in Scientific Discovery (Berkeley University of California Press, in press). 

The second reason I see for doing history of chemistry is simply that it is interesting to see how ideas evolved. Even if one was in the middle of the fray. Or, maybe, just because one was there My mother and I were busy surviving World War II in Galicia the news we had of the war was fragmentary and propagandistic. What a joy it was to read years later Winston Churchill s history of the Second World War Chemistry isn t war, but there is a lot of action in those 500 000 articles published each year. 

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