Hard coal

Hardboards Hard coals Hardcoats Hard copy systems Hardenability Hardened fatty acid Hardeners... 

Sohds are hard coal, lignite, peat, and oil shale. Liquids are cmde petroleum and natural gas Hquids. Gases are natural gas. 

Rates of production of lignite have continued to increase since 1960. In 1980 374 x 10 tons of coal equivalent (tee) were produced. One tee is the amount of energy available from combustion of a metric ton of coal having a heat content of 29.3 GJ, ie, 29.3 MJ/kg (12, 600 Btu/lb) (3). In 1989 this figure had risen to 460 x 10 tee. This 23% increase is somewhat less than the 28% increase in hard coal production during this period (see Coal). In 1990 the 1130 X 10 metric tons of lignite produced worldwide represented 24% of the total coal production. 

Hard coal is more important ia most of the western European countries with the exception of Austria and Italy. No lignitic coal production was iadicated ia 1989 for the Netherlands, Denmark, Belgium, Sweden, Norway, and the United Kingdom (24). 

Ha.rd Coa.1, The amount of coal in international commerce since ca 1945 necessitated an international system of coal classification and in 1956 the Coal Committee of the European Economic Community agreed on a system designated the International Classification of Hard Coal by Type (3). Volatile matter and gross calorific value on a moist, ash-free basis are among the parameters considered. Table 4 shows the various classes of the international system and gives the corresponding national names used for these coals. 

International Classification of Hard Coals by Type, United Nations PubHcation No. 1956 II, E.4 E/ECE/247 E/ECE/Coal/100,1956. 

It can be considered that about 20,000 kWh/yr are required to heat a typical house in developed countries. If hard coal, oil, natural gas, and LPG are used, the annual total C02 emissions are 8,280 kg C()2/yr, 6,280 kgCCVyr, 4,540 kg CCh/yr, and 5,180 kgCO/yr, respectively [17]. These data agree with those reported by Johnson [18], which are shown in Figure 3. 

According to Dr. ter Meer, the existence of the concentration camp had not crossed his mind when he accepted Ambros invitation (this was his first visit, a year before he scanned the grounds from the boiler house) to come down to look the place over. Here was an industrial delight The buna factory they wanted to build would have a capacity larger than any of the others. They would need a million tons of hard coal, and Oswiecem was on the southern border of the Silesian coal fields. The plant needed as much power as the city of Berlin, and here at Oswiecem three rivers united — the Sola, the Przemsze, and the Little Vistula. East of the town was another river which could furnish extra power and would take off the waste from the plant. 

BASF/Scholven A pretreatment process for benzole, the product formed by hydrogenating hard coal. The benzole is hydrogenated at 300 to 400°C using a molybdenum or cobalt/molybdenum catalyst. The product is a mixture of aromatic hydrocarbons, suitable for separation by a variety of physical processes. The process was invented by BASF in 1925 and adopted by Scholven-Chemie in 1950. Eleven plants in France and Germany subsequently adopted the process. 

Hard and soft acid and base (HSAB) principle, 16 780 Hard blacks, 21 775 Hard-burned quicklime, 15 28 Hard coals, 6 703 classification, 6 712 Hard copper alloys, 7 723t relief annealed, 7 723t Hard copy systems, 9 513-514 Hard core repulsion, 23 93 Hard-elastic olefin fibers, 11 242 Hardenability, of steel, 23 283—284 Hardened MF resins, analysis of,... 

Another important starting material is 3-amino-N-ethylcarbazol. Carbazol is obtained from hard coal tar and is usually ethylated with ethylbromide or with ethylchloride. Subsequent nitration and reduction affords the required compound. 

Table 3.8. Worldwide hard coal production and consumption, 2005...

Hard coal production Hard coal consumption ... 

Of the 25% share of coal in world primary energy supply, hard coal makes up around 90% (BGR, 2007). Owing to its high calorific value, the main use of hard coal is for electricity generation (60% of world hard coal production), 16% is used for steel making, and the rest in other industries and households. While in the EU25 around one third of the electricity is produced by (hard) coal, this share amounts to 50% in the United States, 70% in India, 80% in China, 85% in Australia, 90% in South Africa and 93% in Poland. 

Because of its high calorific energy content, hard coal is internationally traded (unlike lignite). Total trade in 2005 amounted to 790 Mt (16% of production), of which around 90% was traded by sea transport from the harbours, the coal is further distributed either by inland waterways or rail. The most important exporters of hard coal are Australia, South Africa and Indonesia. 

Hard coal reserves Hard coal resources ... 

Table 3.9 shows the distribution of world hard coal reserves and resources in 2005. Total reserves amounted to 728 Gt (626 Gtce), of which the vast majority are located in the USA and China, followed by India and Russia. The top ten countries represent 85% of total reserves. Considering the production of 2005, the static lifetime of hard coal can be calculated at around 150 years however, we should acknowledge the simplicity of this approach, as coal use is expected to increase significantly in the future. As for hard coal resources, whose quantification is more uncertain, Russia is leading, followed by China and the United States. Figure 3.22 shows the geographical distribution of cumulative production, reserves and resources of hard coal. 

In this energy chain, coal is gasified to generate synthesis gas. The H2 CO ratio required for an optimum efficiency is adjusted via the CO shift reaction of a part of the carbon monoxide (CO) contained in the synthesis gas. The remaining synthesis gas is converted to liquid hydrocarbons via Fischer-Tropsch synthesis or via methanol synthesis with a downstream MtSynfuels (trademark by Lurgi) process (see beginning of Section 7.3.4). The liquid hydrocarbon yield amounts to about 0.40 MJ per MJ of hard coal, which is of the same order of magnitude as in the case of BTL ( 0.40 MJ/MJ) to calculate the thermal process efficiency, the electricity export must also be taken into account (see Table 7.12). 

The use of fuel-cell vehicles does not always result in GHG emission reductions. For example, in the case of hybrid fuel-cell vehicles fuelled with CGH2 from the EU s current electricity mix and from hard coal lead to higher GHG emissions than hybrid ICE vehicles fuelled with crude oil based gasoline and diesel. 

Table 10.3 shows the assumed capacity ranges and efficiencies of an IGCC plant designed to produce hydrogen with the possibility of co-producing electricity (using hard coal). According to Chiesa et al. (2005), the net electrical output (efficiency) of... 

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