Fossil fuel<secondary

If possible comparisons are focused on energy systems, nuclear power safety is also estimated to be superior to all electricity generation methods except for natural gas (30). Figure 3 is a plot of that comparison in terms of estimated total deaths to workers and the pubHc and includes deaths associated with secondary processes in the entire fuel cycle. The poorer safety record of the alternatives to nuclear power can be attributed to fataUties in transportation, where comparatively enormous amounts of fossil fuel transport are involved. Continuous or daily refueling of fossil fuel plants is required as compared to refueling a nuclear plant from a few tmckloads only once over a period of one to two years. This disadvantage appHes to solar and wind as well because of the necessary assumption that their backup power in periods of no or Httie wind or sun is from fossil-fuel generation. Now death or serious injury has resulted from radiation exposure from commercial nuclear power plants in the United States (31). 

Atmospheric pollutants released by combustion of fossil fuels fall into two main categories those emitted direcdy into the atmosphere as a result of combustion and the secondary pollutants that arise from the chemical and photochemical reactions of the primary pollutants (see Airpollution). 

Combustion processes are the most important source of air pollutants. Normal products of complete combustion of fossil fuel, e.g. coal, oil or natural gas, are carbon dioxide, water vapour and nitrogen. However, traces of sulphur and incomplete combustion result in emissions of carbon monoxide, sulphur oxides, oxides of nitrogen, unburned hydrocarbons and particulates. These are primary pollutants . Some may take part in reactions in the atmosphere producing secondary pollutants , e.g. photochemical smogs and acid mists. Escaping gas, or vapour, may... 

A secondary benefit is that efficiency gains in fossil fuel generation also reduce all types of harmful emissions, even carbon dioxide—the greenhouse gas suspected by many as a major culprit of climate change. A 45 percent efficient plant releases approximately 40 percent less COn per megawatt-hours of electricity produced than a 25 percent efficient plant that it might be replacing. 

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Is a major pollutant originating from natural and man-made sources. It has been estimated that a total of about 150 million tons of NOx are emitted to the atmosphere each year, of which about 50% results from man-made sources (21). In urban areas, man-made emissions dominate, producing elevated ambient levels. Worldwide, fossil-fuel combustion accounts for about 75% of man-made NOx emissions, which Is divided equally between stationary sources, such as power plants, and mobile sources. These high temperature combustion processes emit the primary pollutant nitric oxide (NO), which Is subsequently transformed to the secondary pollutant NO2 through photochemical oxidation. 

It was in this political and social climate that Vadim Kosmatschof began his artistic training. From 1951 to 1958 he was a student at the Moscow Secondary Art School. There he worked on the development of his first spatial concepts, which even then were conceived in relation to architecture and in contemplation of the standardized public spaces of the Stalin years. In his early sketches, Kosmatschof developed the concept of space that was to be determinative for his entire artistic development the space occupied by the sculpture is conceived as a resource and a means of organizing experience in order to develop a processual form of aesthetics. The buried tradition of Russian constructivism thus became a kind of fossil fuel which inspired and... 

Another approach to reducing C02 emissions from fossil fuels use is the development of C02 capture and storage technologies (CCS).1 With these, fossil fuels should be converted into electricity, hydrogen or other secondary energy carriers while... 

A general conclusion is that incentives to convert conventional fossil fuel based technology into biomass based technologies are large, but implementation will be slowed down for several reasons. Firstly, there is the availability of biomass itself. The preferred feedstock should not compete with food production. Processes to convert such biomass practically into secondary energy carriers are not yet commercially available. In the mean time, technologies converting food related biomass will be implemented. But this will only occur for a limited period in the near future. 

Nitrogen oxides (NO ) are formed during the combustion at high temperature of fossil fuels and of biomasses and are blamed for the production of acid rain, the formation of ozone in the troposphere and of secondary particulate matter and for causing a reduction in breathing functionality and damage to the cardio-circulatory system in humans. 

The air emissions of fossil fuel combustion are dispersed and diluted within the atmosphere, eventually falling or migrating to the surface of the Earth or ocean at various rates. Until recently, most attention was focused on the so-called primary pollutants of fossil fuel combustion that are harmful to human health oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, carbon monoxide, suspended particles (including soot), heavy metals, and products of incomplete combustion. These pollutants are most concentrated in urban or industrialized areas close to large or multiple sources. However, the primary pollutants may interact with each other, and with atmospheric constituents and sunlight, forming secondary pollutants that disperse far beyond the urban-... 

Eary et al. (1990) reviewed previous literature on the formation of secondary solid phases in fossil fuel wastes. At the time of their review, few primary phases containing minor elements had been directly observed by previous studies... 

Fiydrothermal plants produce electric power at a cost competitive with the cost of power from fossil fuels. Besides generating electricity, hydrothermal energy is used directly to heat buildings. Across the United States, geothermal hot-water reservoirs are much more common than geothermal steam reservoirs. Most of the untapped hot-water reservoirs are in California, Nevada, Utah, and New Mexico. The temperatures of these reservoirs are not hot enough to drive steam turbines efficiently, but the water is used to boil a secondary fluid, such as butane, whose vapors then drive gas turbines. 

The calculated values of exergy ratios for various primary and secondary sources are shown in Table 1. It 1s to be noted that all the fossil fuel sources are inherently of very high quality. The value of aE greater than unity for coal stems from the fact that a reversible oxidation of carbon at ambient temperature has a negative TQ S and results in production of more work than the enthalpy of combustion, with an associated absorption of heat from the environment. In spite of these high values of < r, when fossil fuels are combusted, say for electrical generation, the maximum temperature is limited not by thermodynamic considerations but by materials constraints. The effective < under this limitation is restricted to values below 0.65. t... 

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