Factor of two

For defect sizing by TOED, use of L waves involves a penalty in resolution of almost a factor of two at a given frequency because of difference in velocity as compared to shear waves and use of SV waves runs into difficulties because of the mode conversion problems. Further, problems due to couplant thickness variations, surface roughness affects, beam skewing and distortion problems in anisotropic welds can also be expected. On the contrary, SH waves are not affected... 

The linear dependence of C witii temperahire agrees well with experiment, but the pre-factor can differ by a factor of two or more from the free electron value. The origin of the difference is thought to arise from several factors the electrons are not tndy free, they interact with each other and with the crystal lattice, and the dynamical behaviour the electrons interacting witii the lattice results in an effective mass which differs from the free electron mass. For example, as the electron moves tlirough tiie lattice, the lattice can distort and exert a dragging force. 

Iiifomiation about the behaviour of the 3D Ising ferromagnet near the critical point was first obtained from high- and low-temperatnre expansions. The expansion parameter in the high-temperatnre series is tanli K, and the corresponding parameter in the low-temperatnre expansion is exp(-2A ). A 2D square lattice is self-dual in the sense that the bisectors of the line joining the lattice points also fomi a square lattice and the coefficients of the two expansions, for the 2D square lattice system, are identical to within a factor of two. The singularity occurs when... 

Each lattice point extraneous to the sites connected by graphs also contributes a factor of two on summing over spin states. Hence all lattice points contribute a factor of 2 whether they are coimected or not, and... 

A8, which leads to D, = 1/(2A8). The factor of two arises because a minimum of two data points per period are needed to sample a sinusoidal wavefonn. Naturally, the broadband light source will detennine the actual content of the spectrum, but it is important that the step size be small enough to acconunodate the highest frequency components of the source, otherwise they... 

In this equation as well as in the succeeding discussions, we have suppressed, for notational simplicity, the pemuitation or degeneracy factor of two, required for SFG. 

There are a number of observations to be drawn from the above fomuila the relative uncertainty can be reduced to an arbitrarily small value by increasing T, but because the relative uncertainty is proportional to /s/f, a reduction in relative uncertainty by a factor of two requires a factor of four increase in collection time. The relative uncertainty can also be reduced by reducing At. Flere, it is understood that At is the smallest time window that just includes all of the signal. At can be decreased by using the fastest possible detectors, preamplifiers and discriminators and minimizing time dispersion in the section of the experiment ahead of the detectors. 

For q 1, at high temperature the rate is independent of temperature kxsT = which is a factor of two larger than the result for 5=1. 

Internal standards at a known concentration are added to the sample after its preparation but prior to analysis to check for GC retention-time accuracy and response stability. If the internal standard responses are in error by more than a factor of two, the analysis must be stopped and the initial calibration repeated. Only if all the criteria have been met can sample analysis begin. 

Amplifier bandwidth. The range of signal frequencies over which an amplifier is capable of undistorted or unattenuated transmission. An operational amplifier should transmit DC voltage accurately the upper (bandwidth) limit is defined as the 3-dB point (attenuation factor of two). Because bandwidth can vary with gain, the product of gain x bandwidth can be a more useful parameter. 

There is a degeneracy factor of two associated with a n orbital compared with the nondegeneracy of a (7 orbital, so that it might be expected that the integrated intensity of the second band system would be twice that of each of the other two. However, although the second band system is the most intense, other factors affect the relative intensities so that they are only an approximate guide to orbital degeneracies. 

The use of flame retardants came about because of concern over the flammabiUty of synthetic polymers (plastics). A simple method of assessing the potential contribution of polymers to a fire is to examine the heats of combustion, which for common polymers vary by only about a factor of two (1). Heats of combustion correlate with the chemical nature of a polymer whether the polymer is synthetic or natural. Concern over flammabiUty should arise via a proper risk assessment which takes into account not only the flammabiUty of the material, but also the environment in which it is used. 

It has been found that the flavor of fmit can be increased by a process called precursor atmosphere (PA) (77). When apples were stored in a controlled atmosphere containing butyl alcohol [71-36-3] the butyl alcohol levels increase by a factor of two, and the polar products, butyl ester, and some sesquiterpene products increase significantly. The process offers the possibiUty of compensating for loss of flavor in fmit handling and processing due to improper transportation conditions or excessive heat. 

Fe/Ci variable ((001) Fe/Cr(001)), 0.9—9.0-nm single-crystal layer thick-ness on single-crystal GaAs resistivity lowered by as much as a factor of two at 4.2 K and switching fields of the order of 1 T are requited 60,61... 

Payment of maintenance fees is required at the fourth-, eighth-, and twelfth-year anniversaries of the date of issuance of the patent. The costs of these maintenance fees vary from year to year depending on the regulations of the U.S. PTO. The first maintenance fee tends to be fairly slight, allowing for the further enforcement of the patent with Htde economic burden on the patentee. The second maintenance fee tends to increase the payment from the first maintenance fee by a factor of two. The third maintenance fee tends to be substantial, increasing the payment from the first maintenance fee by a factor of three. 

This means that if the price ratio has decreased by a factor of four, then losses should be down by a factor of two. If the old optimum allowed a 2% loss, the new optimum would be closer to 1%. 

The lower power dissipation associated with CMOS technology makes it attractive to crowd as many FETs as possible on a chip. The remarkable increase in the number of FETs per chip has been the result of shrinking FET sizes. If the gate length, E, and width, lU, are decreased by a factor of two. 

A flaw such as a simple spherical pore concentrates the stress on the bonds in the vicinity of the pore by a factor of two over the appHed stress (6) however, most ceramics contain imperfections that enhance the stress to a much greater degree, leading to severe strength reductions. A typical ceramic such as alumina is as much as one hundred times weaker than the theoretical strength. 

Pyrazole does not react with iodine although pyrazolylsilver is converted into 4-iodopyrazole. 3-Iodoindazole can be obtained by the reaction of iodine with the silver salt of indazole. Kinetic studies on pyrazole iodination have been carried out by Vaughan et al. (71PMH(4)55, B-76MI40402). Coordination of pyrazole by nickel(II) in aqueous solution increases the rate of iodination by factors of two at pH 6 and eight at pH 7.2 (72JA2460). 

The effective therm conductivity values generally obtained in practice are at least a factor of two greater than the one-dimensional thermal conductivity values measured in the laboratoiy with carefully controlled techniques. This degradation in insulation thermal performance is caused by the combined presence of edge exposure to isothermal boundaries, gaps, joints, or penetrations in the insulation blanket required for structure supports, fill and vent hnes, and high lateral thermal conductivity of these insulation systems. 

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