Enzymatic chondroitin

Such enzymatic catalyzed polycondensations have allowed the synthesis of a number of natural polysaccharides, but has also allowed the production of nonnatural polysaccharides such as cellulose-xylan hybrids and functionalized hyaluronan, chondroitin sulfate, and chondroitin. Such work illustrates the ever-narrowing bridge between natural and synthetic polymers and polymer syntheses. 

Ji, D. et al. Determination of chondroitin sulfate content in raw materials and dietary supplements by high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection after enzymatic hydrolysis single-laboratory validation. J. AOAC Int. 2007, 90, 659-669. 

Heparin/heparan, hyaluronan, and chondroitin are three prevalent glycosaminoglycans. Vertebrates use glycosaminoglycans in structural, recognition, adhesion, and signaling roles. Chemical synthesis of naturally occurring polysaccharides is considered to be impractical. Most polysaccharides, especially those from bacteria origins, are obtained by purification from natural sources or from cell culture, enzymatic approaches have been increasingly applied to obtain some structures. 

Kobayashi S, Fujikawa S, Ohmae M. Enzymatic synthesis of chondroitin and its derivatives catalyzed by hyaluronidase. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003 125 14357-14369. 

With the sulfated polysaccharides, the mechanism of sulfation has aroused much discussion. The chief point at issue is whether sulfation takes place before or after formation of the polysaccharide chain. The biological sulfate carrier, formed enzymatically in chicken embryo cartilage or liver, has been characterized (R4) as 3 -phosphoadenosine-5 -phosphosulfate (PAPS). Following the isolation of chondroitin, it was suggested that this mucopolysaccharide might act as a sulfate acceptor... 

Suzuki, S., and Strominger, J. L., Enzymatic sulfation of mucopolysaccharides in hen oviduct III. Mechanism of sulfation of chondroitin and chondroitin sulfate A. . Biol. Chem. 235, 274-276 (1960). 

Animal venoms usually possess hyaluronidase activity [17]. The enzymatic properties, including hyaluronidase, of snake venoms have been extensively studied by Tan et al. [18]. Snake hyaluronidase acts on hyaluronan, chondroitin, and chondroitin-4- and -6-sulfate, producing various oligosaccharides, mainly tetrasaccharides [1]. 

Kobayashi and coworkers also showed that hyaluronidase is able to catalyze the enzymatic polymerization of chondroitin [229], chondroitin sulfate [230], their... 

It can be degraded either enzymatically or by various other ways that are highlighted below. Hyalorunidases refer to a family of prokaryotic and eukaryotic enzymes that primarily degrade HA, but also other GAGs such as chondroitin and chondroitin sulphate to a lower extent [239]. They can be divided in three distinct classes that can be found intercellularly or in the serum and include two eukaryotic hydrolases of glucosidase type and a prokaryotic lyase one. 

For the polysaccharide synthesis, enzymatic polymerization has been developed as a new in vitro synthesis method of natural and unnatural polysaccharides having complicated structures.The method utilizes a hydrolysis enzyme to catalyze the bond formation for the polymer construction, a reverse direction of the hydrolysis to cleave the bond. This catalysis is due to the enzymatic characteristics, where enzymes catalyze the reverse reaction involving a common intermediate in both forward and backward reactions. In nature, there are many polysaccharides having N-acetyl groups called mucopolysaccharides such as chitin, hyaluronic acid (HA), and chondroitin (Ch). 

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