Energy fossil fuels and

Energy consumption for three energy categories (total energy, fossil fuels, and petroleum)... 

Nonrenewahle resources include the abundant metals (such as iron and aluminum), scarce metals (gold and copper), materials used for energy (fossil fuels and uranium minerals), building materials (limestone, crushed stone, sand, and gravel), and other miscellaneous minerals (halite or natural salt). Running water, wind power, and solar power are not included among materials used for energy because they are renewable sources. 

The use and effective costs of various energy alternatives are shown in Table 2. Use or internal costs include production, transportation, and distribution. Effective costs take into account the use costs estimated external costs, which include costs associated with damage to the environment caused by utili2ation of various fossil fuels and fuel utili2ation efficiencies, ie, the efficiency of converting fuels into mechanical, electrical, or thermal energy. The effective costs are expressed as /GJ of fossil fuel equivalent (15). The overall equation for the effective cost is... 

Vinyl compares favorably to other packaging materials. In 1992, a lifecycle assessment comparison of specific packages made from glass, paperboard, paper, and selected plastics concluded that vinyl was the material that has the lowest production energy and carbon dioxide emissions, as well as the lowest fossil fuel and raw material requirements of the plastics studied (169). Vinyl saves more than 34 million Btu per 1000 pounds manufactured compared to the highest energy-consuming plastic (170). 

Narrowing this gap will require higher substantially increased output of fossil fuels and electricity, but an appreciable share of new energy supply should come from more efficient conversions. Energy intensities (i.e., the amount of primaiy energy per unit of... 

The need for long-term clean power will be a controversial but necessary issue in the twenty-first cen-tuity. The debate will focus on the deregulation of the power industity and the needs of consumers, coupled with what is best for the environment. For certain applications, solar technology has proven to be efficient and reliable. The question remains whether solar will be wholly embraced as energy options for a sustainable future m a climate of cheap fossil fuels and less than enthusiastic public support. 

Coal used in power stations has the potential to be partly replaced by fuels derived from pre-treated plastics and paper waste, reducing both dependency on fossil fuels and reliance on landfill. APME reports on a project in the Netherlands which it co-sponsored to develop a substitute fuel from plastics. The environmental assessment of the project compared the environmental impacts of coal substitution with other plastics recovery methods, including gasification in feedstock recycling and energy recovery from plastics waste in cement kilns. The study also compared coal substitution with the generation of power from burning biomass. 

H2 serves as the alternative energy source relative to fossil fuels and biomass [181] because it is clean and environmentally friendly. Hence, catalytic hydrogen generation from water under mild conditions is one of the goals for the organometallic catalysis. One of the hopeful methods is the electrochemical reduction of protons by a hydrogenase mimic. 

The advances of human civilization can be viewed as the results of people figuring out how to increase the availability of energy. As Figure 6-21 shows, the amount of energy used per person per day has multiplied by ore than a factor of 100 as humans moved beyond the application of their own muscles, by making use of animals, water power, fossil fuels, and nuclear energy. 

The fields of combustion and atmospheric chemistry are intimately connected. Both of these fields are dominated by the reactivity of radical intermediates. The oxidation (combustion) of fossil fuels and their derivatives converts chemical energy into heat... 

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