Labour employment

In many traditional societies, exploitation through the credit market has been the central form of surplus-labour extraction. Roemer has shown that credit market exploitation and labour market exploitation are isomorphic in a precise sense, thus confirming the neoclassical adage that it does not matter whether capital employs labour or labour capital. Marx makes essentially the same statement in The Class Struggles in France ... 

The experiments were not successful and in February, 1960, it was concluded that in most cases only the most expensive solution - concrete corsets - would be satisfactory. Mr Allan s opinion was that the local force of directly employed labour was inadequate to cope with the task, and that it would be necessary to undertake the task by contract spread over a period of two or three years depending upon the rate at which the RAOC could clear areas of ammunition in order to allow repairs to proceed unhindered. 

France Minist e de VEmploi, du Travail et de la Cohesion sockde Ministry for Employment, Labour and Social Cktiiraion http //www.tta iU.gouv.fr/ (in French) ht //www.tra il.gouv.fi /ei iah ndexJitm (in English)... 

The construction industry covers about 7 % of the employed labour in Finland (in 2012, 175 000 employees), and is male-dominated, as approximately 90 % of the workforce are men (Oksa et al. 2013). According to the statistics of the Federation of Accident Insurance Instimtions (FAIl), the construction industry has the second highest accident figures in the comparison between the absolute accident numbers of different branches. The amount of accidents at work has remained quite stable in recent years, at approximately 14 000 accidents/year. Accident frequency is over 60 accidents/miUion working hours. 

The proportion of Britain s employed labour force in manufacturing is now about 26 per cent and some 65 per cent of the employed labour force is engaged in service sectors (HMSO, 1986). Manufacturing industry accounts for just under 25 per cent of Britain s Gross National Product. About two-thirds of the country s... 

These steps may be completed separately or together, statistical methods can be employed and the computational labour reduced through the use of high speed computers. 

Committee for the Prevention of Disasters Caused by Dangerous Substances. Methods for the determination of possible damage to people and objects resulting from releases of hazardous materials. CPR 16E. The Hague Directorate-General of Labour of the Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment. December 1989. 

Chemical plants do not normally employ many people and the cost of operating labour would not normally exceed 15 per cent of the total operating cost. The direct overhead charges would add 20 to 30 per cent to this figure. 

Boiler steam may be purchased at 0.2/1000 kg and the vapour produced may be assumed to be 0.85N kg/kg of boiler steam. Assuming that interest on capital, depreciation, and other fixed charges amount to 45 per cent of the capital involved per annum, and that the cost of labour is constant and independent of the number of effects employed, determine the number of effects which, based on the data given, will give the maximum economy. 

When I found so astonishing a power placed within my hands, I hesitated a long time concerning the manner in which I should employ it. Although I possessed the capacity of bestowing animation, yet to prepare a frame for the reception of it, with all its intricacies of fibers, (15) muscles, and veins, still remained a work of inconceivable difficulty and labour. I doubted at first whether I should attempt the creation of... 

Marx also assumes the rate of surplus value (the ratio of St to VJ is the same in both departments. In Department 1, for example, 1,000 units of variable capital are employed at a rate of surplus value of 100 per cent, which generates 1,000 units of surplus value. Each worker performs an hour of labour for himself and an additional hour for the capitalist. The total amount of living labour performed (2,000) is added to the amount of constant capital (4,000) used up, to give a total value produced in Department 1 (W ) of 6,000. Similarly, Department 2 uses 2,000 units of constant capital, 500 units of variable capital, and extracts 500 emits of surplus value to yield a total value (W2) of 3,000. The general formula for calculating total values, Wt = Ct + IT +. S., is captured in Table 2.1. 

Having set up the expanded reproduction schema in an input-output format, the path is now clear for it to be modelled as a multiplier framework. To achieve this aim, input coefficients ay = Xy/Xj specify the ratio between physical flows of means of production (Xy), from department i to department j, to (physical) gross output (Xy) of department j. In Marx s reproduction schema, these input coefficients are applied to Department 1, the only sector producing means of production. For Department 2, different notation is required for our multiplier framework. Ratios to gross output of the total number of labour units employed in each sector (Ly) are represented by labour coefficients ly = Lj/Xy, and consumption coefficients ht = BJL are... 

Under Marx s assumption, in Capital, volume 2, that prices and values are identical, and hence 1 of output is equal to an hour of labour time, this equation captures both an income and multiplier relationship. The equivalence between prices and values is embodied in the identity p = v such that the total employment of labour units (vQ) is equal to total money net income (pQ). Similarly, vF the total number of labour emits required to produce final demand, is equal to total money final demand (pF). Hence, the expression 1/1 — vh is an income/employment multiplier, in which the scalar vh represents the propensity to consume b, derived from the two-department schema.10 We shall refer to this as the Keyensian scalar multiplier, since although it is somewhat unusually defined according to worker consumption it retains the l/l h structure that is so common to economics textbooks. The simplicity of the Keynesian multiplier is retained in a two-department setting. 

From this perspective the embodied labour coefficients, employed in the Sraffian interpretation of Marx, are based on an exclusive focus on the use-value aspect (ibid. 54). Furthermore, These constructs inhibit the account of a capitalist economy as an essentially monetary system (ibid. 54). As argued by Clarke ... 

What is more, these equally valid ways of defining value are consistent with a macroeconomic interpretation of the autonomous role of money. Since under the Kalecki principle capitalists earn what they spend, the social validation of the market, led by capitalist investment and consumption, is the starting point for economic activity. Commodities are only produced, labour is only employed, if capitalists cast into circulation the money required for sales to be realized - for labour embodied in commodities to become socially necessary. Since money, with its specific role in a capitalist economy, is so central to the Kalecki principle, a possible synthesis can be suggested with the value-form approach without, that is, compromising the use of a Leontief/Keynesian multiplier framework together with embodied labour categories. 

Domar assumes at the outset that there is full capacity utilization, and moreover that the fraction of labour force employed is a function of the ratio between national income and productive capacity (ibid. 37). Since the supply side models the economy s capacity to produce output, full employment of the labour force requires that the potential change of output is equal to the change in output demanded via the multiplier. Hence, the full employment balanced rate of growth can be established by setting... 

A small shift away from the refinery sector towards the new and more labour-intensive hydrogen production sector could also be identified. Employment gains could also be made in the construction and the machinery and equipment sectors because of hydrogen infrastructure investments. 

It was during the 1700 s that Firework Masters from Europe came to England to meet the demand for ever more spectacular displays for members of the Royal Eamily. Many labourers were employed locally to erect the huge frames and platforms from which to display the fireworks, and amongst the locals were members of the Pain (and Brock) families. In this way William Pain acquired enough knowledge from the Masters to present his own displays in London s Parks and Gardens in the late 1700 s. 

Published by the International Labour Organization s Constitution to promote the protection of the worker from sickness, disease and injury arising out of employment . 

James Hinton, The First Shop Stewards Movement (London Allen and Unwin, 1973). Department of Employment and Productivity, British Labour Statistics Historical Abstract 1886-1968 (London HMSO, 1971), p.396. 

A comparison of table 6.7 with the comparable figures in tables 1.1, 3.2 and 5.3 shows that in the post-war period defence took up a higher proportion of GDP down to 1968/9 than had been the case in the ten years before the First World War or in the years 1920/1 to 1936/7 inclusive. Moreover, whereas the rise in defence expenditure in the late 1930s had been at a time of high unemployment, the competition between civil and military use of labour and capital was much greater in conditions of full employment after the Second World War. In these circumstances economic analysis suggests that defence expenditure contributed to Britain s slower economic growth compared with countries that devoted less of GDP to defence. A study of fourteen advanced... 

Department of Employment and Productivity, British Labour Statistics Historical Abstract 1886-1968, London HMSO, 1971. 

Interlocking construction blocks are also a promising field for sulphur concretes. The various types of blocks produced allow easy construction. The close reproduction of mould shape is a major advantage mortarless construction has been employed, allowing use of unskilled labour. Improvements in mix design should lead to a reduction in the quantity of binder required and thus a reduction in cost. 

Many have had misgivings as to the utilitarian value of the enormous labour which has been expended in this direction, and particularly when the best representative values of all the best results are usually rounded off to the nearest tenth when the at. wt. are employed in chemical calculations. Lord Kelvin s words are often quoted as a stimulus to greater and still greater precision ... 

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