Electronically transduced

Free ICIO4) (aq) Ion/electron transducer (m) Free (electrons)... 

J. Bobacka. T. Lindfors, A. Lewenstam. and A. Ivaska, All-Solid-State Ion Sensors Using Conducting Polymers as Ion-to-Electron Transducers, Am. Lab., February 2004, 13 A. Konopka, T. Sokalski, A. Michalska, A. Lewenstam, and M. Maj-Zurawska, Factors Affecting the Potentiometric Response of All-Solid-State Solvent Polymeric Membrane Calcium-Selective Electrode for Low-Level Measurement, Anal. Chem. 2004, 76, 6410 M. Fouskaki and... 

In order to assimilate the following mateial, the reader should be familiar with a few simple concepts in instrumentation elecronics. These topics are more than adequately discussed in numerous texts and so we do not belabor them here. For the convenience of those who need to review, we have prepared a list of subjects essential to understanding these introductory sections. This list is all-inclusive, so study of topics not on the list (e.g., ac circuit theory, inductance, transformers, power supplies, digital electronics, transducers, transistors, etc.) will be of no immediate value. 

Ion sensors with conducting polymers as ion-to-electron transducers... 

Polypyrrole was the first conducting polymer used as ion-to-electron transducer in solid-state ISEs [43], and is still one of the most frequently used [45-68]. Other conducting polymers that have been applied as ion-to-electron transducers in solid-state ISEs include poly(l-hexyl-3,4-dimethylpyrrole) [69,70], poly(3-octylthiophene) [44,70-74], poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) [75-86], poly(3-methylthiophene) [87], polyaniline [44,67,73,88-99], polyindole [100,101], poly(a-naphthylamine) [102], poly(o-anisidine) [67] and poly(o-aminophenol) [103], The monomer structures are shown in Fig. 4.1. 

Solid-state ion sensors with conducting polymers as ion-to-electron transducers (and sensing membranes) offer some advantages over conventional liquid-contact ISEs. Solid-state ISEs without internal filling solution are more durable, require less maintenance, are easier to miniaturize, and allow great flexibility in electrode design and fabrication. 

When the conducting polymer is used as ion-to-electron transducer in the form of an intermediate layer between the electronic conductor and the ion-selective membrane it does not significantly influence the sensitivity and selectivity of the ISE, but it allows high potential stability [75]. For example, microfabricated solid-state K+-ISEs with polypyrrole as ion-to-electron transducer was found to show even better long-term potential stability than those based on a hydrogel contact [58]. The potential of the polypyrrole-based K+-ISE was slightly more sensitive to the oxygen concentration of the sample in comparison to... 

Solid-contact pH sensors can be constructed by using polypyrrole [45,59] or polyaniline [92,96] as ion-to-electron transducer in combination with pH-selective membranes based on plasticized PVC [45,59,92,96]. The dynamic pH range of the sensors depend on the pH ionophore used in the plasticized PVC membranes, as follows tri-n-dodecylamine (pH 2-12) [45], tris(2-phenylethyl)amine (pH 4.5-12.6) [59], tris(3-phenylpropyl)amine (pH 4.6-13.2) [59], tribenzylamine (pH 2.5-11.2) [92,96], dibenzylnaphtalenemethylamine (pH 0.65-10.0) [96], dibenzylpyrenemethyl-amine (pH 0.50-10.2) [96]. Suggested applications include pH measurements in body fluids such as serum [45,96], whole blood [92], and cow milk [59]. 

The acid-base properties of polyaniline can be utilized to produce solid-state pH sensors where polyaniline works both as the pH-sensitive material and as the ion-to-electron transducer. An excellent example is the electrodeposition of polyaniline on an ion-beam etched carbon fiber with a tip diameter of ca. 100-500 nm resulting in a solid-state pH nanoelectrode with a linear response (slope ca. — 60mV/pH unit) in the pH range of 2.0-12.5 and a working lifetime of 3 weeks [104]. The response time vary from ca. 10 s (around pH 7) to ca. 2 min (at pH 12.5). 

Solid-state sensors for anionic surfactants can be constructed by using polyaniline as sensing membrane [107,108], and by using polypyrrole as ion-to-electron transducer in combination with plasticized PYC as sensing membranes [53,66]. The sensors may be applied for the determination of dodecylsulfate in, e.g., mouth-washing solution and tap water [107], and for the determination of dodecylbenzenesulfonate in detergents [66,108]. Solid-state surfactant sensors allow a sample rate of 30 samples/h, when applied in flow-injection analysis [53]. 

Solid-contact ISEs with conducting polymers as ion-to-electron transducers and plasticized PVC-based sensing membranes may be applied... 

Solid-state ISEs with conducting polymers are also promising for low-concentration measurements [60,63,74], even below nanomolar concentrations [60,74], which gives rise to optimism concerning future applications of such electrodes. In principle, the detection limit can be improved by reducing the flux of primary ions from the ion-selective membrane (or conducting polymer) to the sample solution, e.g., via com-plexation of primary ions in the solid-contact material. For example, a solid-state Pb2+-ISEs with poly(3-octylthiophene) as ion-to-electron transducer coated with an ion-selective membrane based on poly(methyl methacrylate)/poly(decyl methacrylate) was found to show detection limits in the subnanomolar range and a faster response at low concentrations than the liquid-contact ISE [74]. 

Conducting polymers have been studied as potentiometric ion sensors for almost two decades and new sensors are continuously developed. The analytical performance of solid-state ion sensors with conducting polymers as ion-to-electron transducer (solid-contact ISEs) has been significantly improved over the last few years. Of particular interest is the large improvement of the detection limit of such solid-contact ISEs down to the nanomolar level. Further optimization of the solid contacts as well as the ion-selective membranes will most certainly extend the range of practical applications. 

Determination ofCa(II) in wood pulp using a calcium-selective electrode with poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) as ion-to-electron transducer... 

As with the majority of ISEs, all of the aforementioned receptors are immobilised within close proximity to the transducer element. However, conducting polymers (electroactive conjugated polymers) are now emerging rapidly as one of the most promising classes of transducer for use within chemical sensors. Here, the receptor can be doped within the polymer matrix, i.e. within the transducer element itself. This will facilitate the production of reliable, cost-effective, miniaturised anion-selective sensors, as it will be possible to move away from plasticiser-based membranes, but allow for ion recognition sites in conjunction with all-solid-state ion-to-electron transducers. 

Conducting polymers have already been well documented in conjunction with the classical ionophore-based solvent polymeric ion-selective membrane as an ion-to-electron transducer. This approach has been applied to both macro- and microelectrodes. However, with careful control of the optimisation process (i.e. ionic/electronic transport properties of the polymer), the doping of the polymer matrix with anion-recognition sites will ultimately allow selective anion recognition and ion-to-electron transduction to occur within the same molecule. This is obviously ideal and would allow for the production of durable microsensors, as conducting polymer-based electrodes, and due to the nature of their manufacture these are suited to miniaturisation. There are various examples of anion-selective sensors formed using this technique reported in the literature, some of which are listed below. 

Photoswitchable redox-enzymes 1. Amperometric transduction of optical information - biocomputers 2. Amplification of weak optical signals -photonic amplifiers 3. Multisensor arrays — biosensor and bioelectronics 4. Photoelectrochemical systems Enzyme immobilized on electronic transducer... 

Photoswitchable antigen/antibody (substrate/ receptor) complexes 1. Reversible immunosensors 2. Patterning of surfaces with biomaterials using antigen/antibody-biomaterial conjugates (Design of biosensor arrays, biochips) 1. Immobilization of systems on electronic transducers (electrodes, piezoelectric crystals, FET) or the assembly of biomaterials on inert supports by non-covalent interactions (eg. glass, polymers)... 

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