Diagnostic Reference Level

Based on diagnostic reference levels for radiopharmaceuticals adopted by the European member states, the total activity administered on a single day should not exceed 1,000 MBq (27 mCi) in the case of the combined rest-exercise protocol and 600 MBq (16.2 mCi) in the case of the one-day protocol (European Commission 1999). A rather large variation in the recommendations from country to country has been reported (Hesse et al. 2005). 

European Commission (1999) Radiation protection 109, guidance on diagnostic reference levels (DRLs) for medical exposures. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg... 

Table 4.2. Diagnostic Reference Levels for some CT investigations of adults, valid in Germany since 2003...

Root Mean Square Error of Prediction (RMSEP) Plot (Model Diagnostic) The RMSEP versus number of factors plot in Figure 5.113 shows a break at three factors and a leveling off after six factors. Tlie RMSEP value with six factors (0,04) is comparable to the estimated error in the reported concentrations (0.033), indicating the model is predicting well At this point we tentatively choose a rank six model. The rank three model shows an RMSEP of 0.07 and may well have been considered to be an adequate model, depending on how well the reference values are known. 

While many of the standard electroanalytical techniques utilized with metal electrodes can be employed to characterize the semiconductor-electrolyte interface, one must be careful not to interpret the semiconductor response in terms of the standard diagnostics employed with metal electrodes. Fundamental to our understanding of the metal-electrolyte interface is the assumption that all potential applied to the back side of a metal electrode will appear at the metal electrode surface. That is, in the case of a metal electrode, a potential drop only appears on the solution side of the interface (i.e., via the electrode double layer and the bulk electrolyte resistance). This is not the case when a semiconductor is employed. If the semiconductor responds in an ideal manner, the potential applied to the back side of the electrode will be dropped across the internal electrode-electrolyte interface. This has two implications (1) the potential applied to a semiconducting electrode does not control the electrochemistry, and (2) in most cases there exists a built-in barrier to charge transfer at the semiconductor-electrolyte interface, so that, electrochemical reversible behavior can never exist. In order to understand the radically different response of a semiconductor to an applied external potential, one must explore the solid-state band structure of the semiconductor. This topic is treated at an introductory level in References 1 and 2. A more complete discussion can be found in References 3, 4, 5, and 6, along with a detailed review of the photoelectrochemical response of a wide variety of inorganic semiconducting materials. 

Fig. 1 Traceability system for the determination of the most important diagnostic markers in human body fluids in Germany. The clinical reference laboratories at the intermediate level providing calibration means to the routine medical laboratories are accredited as calibration laboratories in the framework of the German Calibration Service (DKD) and are firmly linked to the national metrology institute, PTB, by comparison measurements carried out on actual laboratory samples. Accreditation is in part required by the Federal Physicians Council (BAK) or is voluntary. The traceability system is still under development...

Meanwhile, the idea was formulated about resolving the full set of primitive hydro- and thermodynamic equations with all the boundary conditions specified successively correcting the current model fields of the temperature, salinity, and SLE by their observed values with the use of this or that kind of assimilation algorithm [35,36]. This approach is sometimes referred to as a four-dimensional analysis. Strictly speaking, it has little in common with the initial diagnostic methods. They are joined only by the common goal - the hydrodynamic calculations of the fields of currents from the data of observations of the temperature, salinity, and sea level. Therefore, in this section, we consider the results of application of all the above-mentioned approaches. 

The twins were referred subsequently to a metabolic specialist because of the suspicion of an inborn error of metabolism. Biochemical testing revealed each had a hyperchloremic (increased blood chloride concentration) metabolic acidosis that was more profound in Elizabeth. Serum levels of glucose and liver transaminases were normal. Urinary organic acids revealed modestly increased concentrations of lactate and ketone bodies. Blood samples and fibroblasts from skin biopsies from both girls were sent to an established diagnostic laboratory for genetic mitochondrial diseases. Tests of respiratory chain complex enzymatic activities were normal. 

Ms RR should be monitored for symptomatic relief, particularly joint mobility and pain. Laboratory monitoring should include erythrocyte-sedimentation rate (ESR) determination, a decrease in ESR approaching normal reference range (<20 mm/hour) indicates a positive response. Note ESR values are variable and fluctuate in various disease states. They are not diagnostic for rheumatoid arthritis per se, but levels often correlate with disease severity. 

A wide variety of plasma diagnostic applications is available from the measurement of the relatively simple X-ray spectra of He-like ions [1] and references therein. The n = 2 and n = 3 X-ray spectra from many mid- and high-Z He-like ions have been studied in tokamak plasmas [2-4] and in solar flares [5,6]. The high n Rydberg series of medium Z helium-like ions have been observed from Z-pinches [7,8], laser-produced plasmas [9], exploding wires [8], the solar corona [10], tokamaks [11-13] and ion traps [14]. Always associated with X-ray emission from these two electron systems are satellite lines from lithium-like ions. Comparison of observed X-ray spectra with calculated transitions can provide tests of atomic kinetics models and structure calculations for helium- and lithium-like ions. From wavelength measurements, a systematic study of the n and Z dependence of atomic potentials may be undertaken. From the satellite line intensities, the dynamics of level population by dielectronic recombination and inner-shell excitation may be addressed. 

---