Deflocculants

In practical terms, this behaviour means that the presence of alkali cations (Li , Na+ and K ) causes suspensions to disperse or deflocculate whereas divalent cations (Ca , , Sr ) 

This salting-out must be borne in mind if we wish to apply our knowledge of (-potentials to the deflocculation of clay suspensions. Suppose, for instance, that we have a natural clay, the chief exchangeable ion of which is Ca + initially a suspension of this clay is flocculated. If we wish to deflocculate it, we must clearly add a salt of sodium (or potassium), which contains these cations. However, if we add, say, sodium chloride, the reaction will be  

This is a reversible reaction, and so we do not obtain complete conversion to a Na-clay, because the CaClg formed tends to reverse the reaction. In order to achieve complete conversion, we must get rid of the Ca2+ or at least convert it to a form in which it 

The calcium is precipitated as insoluble calcium carbonate, which does not interfere, and so conversion is complete. The choice of deflocculant for maximum dispersion depends therefore on the type of exchangeable cations. Many deflocculants precipitate undesirable cations, as in the equation above, e.g. sodium carbonate, sodium oxalate. More complex ones, like sodium silicate, act in a slightly different way, as we shall see later. 

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Acryhc modifiers for cement impact strength and adhesion to substrates are discussed in reference 211. Both water-soluble acryhc and acryhc emulsion polymers are used in the ceramic industry as temporary binders, deflocculants, and additive components in ceramic bodies and glazes (212) (see Ceramcs). 

Water-Based Muds. About 85% of all drilling fluids are water-based systems. The types depend on the composition of the water phase (pH, ionic content, etc), viscosity builders (clays or polymers), and rheological control agents (deflocculants or dispersants (qv)). 

Low Solids/Nondispersed. Fresh water, clay, and polymers for viscosity enhancement and filtration control make up low sohd/nondispersed muds. Low soflds muds are maintained using minimal amounts of clay and require removal of all but modest quantities of drill soflds. These are called nondispersed systems because no additives are used to further disperse or deflocculate the viscosity building clays. Most water-based muds are considered dispersed because deflocculating additives are used to control the flow properties. 

Various inorganic chemicals remove soluble contaminants encountered during drilling. Salt, NaCl, is a common contaminant that can be removed only by dHution. The adverse effects of salt, primarily clay flocculation, can be overcome by a deflocculant such as a Hgnosulfonate or sulfomethylated... 

Phosphonic acid is an intermediate in the production of alkylphosphonates that are used as herbicides and as water treatment chemicals for sequestration, scale inhibition, deflocculation, and ion-control agents in oil weUs, cooling tower waters, and boiler feed waters. For example, aqueous phosphonic acid reacts with formaldehyde and ammonium chloride in the presence of hydrochloric acid to yield aminotri(methylenephosphonic acid) [6419-19-8]. 

Organophosphoms compounds, primarily phosphonic acids, are used as sequestrants, scale inhibitors, deflocculants, or ion-control agents in oil wells, cooling-tower waters, and boiler-feed waters. Organophosphates are also used as plasticizers and flame retardants in plastics and elastomers, which accounted for 22% of PCl consumed. Phosphites, in conjunction with Hquid mixed metals, such as calcium—zinc and barium—cadmium heat stabilizers, function as antioxidants and stabilizer adjutants. In 1992, such phosphoms-based chemicals amounted to slightly more than 6% of all such plastic additives and represented 8500 t of phosphoms. Because PVC production is expected to increase, the use of phosphoms additive should increase 3% aimually through 1999. 

Deflocculation and Slurry Thinning. Sihcates are used as deflocculants, ie, agents that maintain high sohds slurry viscosities at increased sohds concentrations. Soluble sihcates suppress the formation of ordered stmctures within clay slurries that creates resistance to viscous flow within the various sytems. Laboratory trials are necessary, because the complexity of the systems precludes the use of a universal deflocculant. Sihcates are employed in thinning of limestone or clay slurries used in the wet-process manufacture of cements and bricks, clay refining, and petroleum drilling muds (see also... 

Barium carbonate prevents formation of scum and efflorescence in brick, tile, masonry cement, terra cotta, and sewer pipe by insolubilizing the soluble sulfates contained in many of the otherwise unsuitable clays. At the same time, it aids other deflocculants by precipitating calcium and magnesium as the carbonates. This reaction is relatively slow and normally requites several days to mature even when very fine powder is used. Consequentiy, often a barium carbonate emulsion in water is prepared with carbonic acid to further increase the solubiUty and speed the reaction. 

Forming additives or processing aids (2,33—37) are commonly used to render ceramic powders more processible. Binders and plasticizers (qv) are typically added to improve or aid dry powder and plastic forming, whereas deflocculants, surfactants (qv), and antifoams are commonly used in slurry processing. 

Deflocculants. Deflocculants (34), dispersants (qv), or anticoagulants are added to slurries to improve dispersion and dispersion stabiHty. Dispersants break up floes in a slurry by lowering van der Waals interparticle forces. Deflocculants adsorb on particle surfaces and prevent the approach of particles either by electrostatic or steric stabilization. Deflocculation by electrostatic stabilization is common in clay slurries, as weU as with ceramic particles dispersed in polar Hquids such as water. 

Monovalent cations are good deflocculants for clay—water sHps and produce deflocculation by a cation exchange process, eg, Na" for Ca ". Low molecular weight polymer electrolytes and polyelectrolytes such as ammonium salts (see Ammonium compounds) are also good deflocculants for polar Hquids. Acids and bases can be used to control pH, surface charge, and the interparticle forces in most oxide ceramic—water suspensions. 

Oleic acid is a good deflocculant for oxide ceramic powders in nonpolar Hquids, where a stable dispersion is created primarily by steric stabilization. Tartaric acid, benzoic acid, stearic acid, and trichloroacetic acid are also deflocculants for oxide powders in nonpolar Hquids. 

The hquid vehicle in a slurry should have a low vapor pressure for Hquid extraction and drying be compatible with the soHds and casting mold be inexpensive and be capable of dissolving and dispersing deflocculants and other additives. Distilled or deionized water is generally used as the Hquid vehicle, however, organic Hquids must be used for such moisture sensitive oxide powders as CaO and MgO, and for oxidation sensitive nonoxide powders, eg, AIN. 

A high soHds concentration is desirable to minimize the amount of time and energy required for forming and to minimize drying shrinkage. Using deflocculants, fluid slurries can be made using as Httle as 15—20 vol % Hquid. 

Collection efficiency is normally increased by increasing the gas throughput (Drijver, op. cit.). However, if the entering dust is flocculated, increased gas velocities may cause deflocculation in the cyclone, so that efficiency remains the same or actually decreases. Also, variations in design proportions that result in increased collection effi-... 

Entflockung, /. deflocculation, entfremden, t.t. estrange abandon conceal, entfuhren, t.t. carry off. enthiseln, t.t. remove fusel oil from, rectify, entgasen, t.t. extract gas from, degas, out-gas. 

Dispersed Noninhibited Systems. Drilling fluid systems typically used to drill the upper hole sections are described as dispersed noninhibited systems. They would typically be formulated with freshwater and can often derive many of their properties from dispersed drilled solids or bentonite. They would not normally be weighted to above 12 Ib/gal and the temperature limitation would be in the range of 176-194°F. The flow properties are controlled by a deflocculant, or thinner, and the fluid loss is controlled by the addition of bentonite and low viscosity CMC derivatives. 

Dispersed Inhibited Systems. Dispersed inhibitive fluids attempt to combine the use of dispersed clays and deflocculants to derive the fundamental properties of viscosity and fluid loss with other features that will limit or inhibit the hydration of the formation and cuttings. It will be realized these functions are in opposition therefore the ability of these systems to provide a high level of shale inhibition is limited. However, they have achieved a high level of success and in... 

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