Cost and effectiveness

If the two options have different costs and effects, what is the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio ... 

Cost-effectiveness principle in choosing among activities or interventions, a reasonable relationship should be attained between costs and effects, measured as improvement in health and increased quality of life... 

If a new patent act changes the patent statutes, its impact on trade secrets should be considered as to length of protection, costs, and effectiveness of protection. 

The control of odours from manure spread on fields and from manure stores. To evaluate existing control methods in terms of costs and effectiveness. 

For a new medicine to obtain public subsidy for patients in the community, the sponsor must successfully apply for the product to be included in the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS). Data are required on relative cost and effectiveness, and the scrutiny of this information according to prescribed criteria is described as the fourth hurdle, that is, in addition to quality, safety and efficacy requirements that medicines must overcome, to be readily available to the Australian public. 

Amendments to the National Health Act in 1987 introduced the additional requirement for the PBAC to consider cost and effectiveness. Sponsors were encouraged to provide cost-effectiveness substantiation from 1991, and from 1 January 1993 it became mandatory to include pharmacoeconomic analyses in listing applications - the fourth hurdle. ... 

Berndt, E., R. Glennerster, M. R. Kremer, J. Lee, R. Levine, G. Weizsacker, andH. Williams. 2005. Advanced Markets for a Malaria Vaccine Estimating Costs and Effectiveness. National Bureau ofEconomic Research Working Paper 11288. 

There are a number of sources of uncertainty surrounding the results of economic assessments. One source relates to sampling error (stochastic uncertainty). The point estimates are the result of a single sample from a population. If we ran the experiment many times, we would expect the point estimates to vary. One approach to addressing this uncertainty is to construct confidence intervals both for the separate estimates of costs and effects as well as for the resulting cost-effectiveness ratio. A substantial literature has developed related to construction of confidence intervals for cost-effectiveness ratios. 

S.P. Klein, H.M. Bohannan, R.M. Bell, J.A. Disney, C.B. Foch, R.C. Graves, The cost and effectiveness of school-based preventive dental care. Am. J. Public Health 75 (1985) 382-391. 

For in situ geochemical fixation, site characterization data and reagent concentrations are more exacting than those required for a pump-and-treat approach. Therefore, the use of the system requires a detailed analysis of site conditions and careful system engineering. Site and contaminant characteristics have a large impact on treatment cost and effectiveness. 

Cost Added Studies. Cost added studies are typified by, for example, those of Dr. Paul Chenea, Vice President of Research at General Motors, who, in his paper, The Costs and Effects of Regulation. (8) documents very well the costs of regulation in his company. He concludes that we need "reasonable regulation" and that "research is hobbled by excessive regulation". 

Chenea, Paul F., "The Costs and Effects of Regulations", Research Management (March 1977) 22-26. 

Changes to the design brief must be carefully controlled to assess their cost and effect on work completed up to the point of change. 

It is difficult to provide cost comparison data for the SET process vs. alternative technologies because of the wide variability of the waste that must be remediated (soil, sludge, neat, oils, building materials, DNAPLs, etc.) and the nature of the contaminants. Each situation must be examined individually. What can be said is that SET is cost-competitive to incineration. Several good cost and effectiveness comparison references for these technologies are available from the Federal Government web sites (www.frtr. gov/costper.html and www.lanl.gov/projects/etcap/intro.html). 

Supporters of the use of pesticides claim that there is not one reported instance of an adverse effect in a human caused by DDT and that it is one of the least toxic and safest of all pesticides to humans and animals. Because of its low cost and effectiveness, DDT is still widely used in countries where malaria is endemic. Some of these poorer countries regard DDT as a very important life-saver. 

Dichloropropene, methyl iodide, chloropicrin, dazomet, and metam-sodium are potential alternatives after the phaseout of methyl bromide. However, methyl bromide has shown to be difficult to replace because of its low cost and effectiveness against a wide variety of pests. 

Spent Catalyst. Opportunities may exist to reduce the volume of waste catalyst by reusing the catalyst through several hydrogeneration batches however, experts disagree on the final benefit of this. The measurement of this can be made by measuring hydrogeneration efficiency versus catalyst disposal costs. Other catalysts have been explored however, their costs and effectiveness are less desirable. These catalysts have environmental problems of their own because they are heavy metal-based. 

Munchausen s syndrome by proxy involving syrup of ipecacuanha has been reported in an 18-month-old child who was brought by his mother with persistent vomiting for 4 weeks with generalized myopathy and pneumonia (6). Its over-the-counter avaUabihty, low cost, and effective emetic properties give this drug a high appeal for such abuse. 

Interstitial gases in soil air are first extracted by driving a probe into the soil and sucking the soil air into a measurement device or a pre-concentration medium. A variety of procedures have been reported (Devine and Sears, 1977 Jones and Drozd, 1983 Richers and Jones, 1986). The main operational parameters are the probe depth, isolation of the soil air from the atmospheric air, the amount of negative pressure applied, the protection of the probe from blockage and the reduction of the dead volume of the tubing. These have to be optimised in terms of both cost and effectiveness. Of course it is not possible to extract interstitial soil air from waterlogged soils. 

Cunningham GC, Tompkinison DG. Cost and effectiveness of the California triple marker prenatal screening program. Genet Med 1999 1 199-206. 

Urquhart J, Chevalley C. 1988. Impact of unrecognized dosing errors on the cost and effectiveness of pharmaceuticals . Drug Inf. J. 22 363-378. 

AHCPR. The agency is committed to a research agenda that is user driven and welcomes contacts from the pharmacotherapy community on topics of healthcare quality, cost, and effectiveness. 

Crealey, G.E. McElnay, J.C. Maguire, T.A. O Neill, C. Costs and effects associated with a community pharmacy-based smoking cessation programme. Pharmacoeconomics 1998, 4. 323 333. 

Computers have been used as a routine part of pharmacy practice for many years. Pharmacists use this technology in many ways. For example, computers can be used to interact with physician colleagues, track patient behaviors, or as tools to evaluate cost and effectiveness of medication regimens.Pharmacists have also investigated concordance between traditional and computerized patient records, and are now incorporating computers into patient assessment and educational activities. 

The plastic structures can again be filled with metal in a second electroforming (electrodeposition) process. Thus, metallic microstructures can be fabricated in an economic, low cost and effective way. The plastic inicrostructures can also serve as so called lost molds for the production of ceramic microstructures. In this case, the mold is filled, for example by means of a slip casting process. During firing of the ceramic, the polymer is completely degraded and evaporates. 

Often cfinical effectiveness is gained at an increased cost. Is the increased benefit worth the increased cost Incremental CEA may be nsed to determine the additional cost and effectiveness gained when one treatment alternative is compared with the next best treatment alternative. Thns, instead of comparing the ACERs of each treatment alternative, the additional cost that a treatment alternative imposes over another treatment is compared with the additional effect, benefit, or outcome it provides. The ICER can be snmmarized as follows ... 

Several other factors that are not included in the MAI also should be assessed (1) suboptimal medication choice (based on effectiveness, safety, cost, and effects on HRQOL), (2) allergy (especially for new prescriptions), (3) undertreatment, and (4) drug interactions with food or laboratory tests. Some additional factors to consider during drug regimen review include adherence, medication storage problems, laboratory monitoring, therapeutic end points, and ADRs. 

Armitage, D.M., Wilkin, D.R. and Cogan, P.M. (1992) The cost and effectiveness of aeration in the British climate. Proceedings of the 5th International Working Conference on Stored-Product Protection 3, pp. 1925-1933. 

Table VII. Cost and Effectiveness of a Substitution for a Solvent Blend (.24)...

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