Commercial economics

J. E. Duddy, S. B. Panvelker, and G. A. Popper, "Commercial Economics of HRI Coal/Oil Co-Processing Technology," paper presented at 1990 SummerAIChE National Meeting, San Diego, Ca., 1990. 

Thus, there is undoubtedly a commercial economic incentive to develop techniques to accelerate the ripening of cheese. However, in spite of a considerable amount of published research, and presumably unpublished work, the number of viable options appears to be rather limited—at present the best method appears to be a hi er ripening temperature. 

Today, there is a distinct definition Biotechnologies are processes that seek to transform biological materials of animal, vegetable, microbial, or viral origin into products of commercial, economic, social, and/or hygienic utility and value, and bioengineering focuses on their scale up methodology. 

Unfortunately, there are relatively few situations in the world where radiation disinfestation of grain would be commercially economic. In order to reduce irradiation costs, the scale of operation must be large the process would best be applied to grain that is bulk-stored in the country of... 

Since the transportation of sulfur dioxide as a vapor is not commercially economical, it is shipped and stored as a liquefied gas. Under the appropriate regulations, it is authorized for shipment in approved containers by rail, highway, water, and air. [9] and [11]... 

Another technique proposed for the inside process is plasma chemical vapor deposition (PCVD). In this version of the process, a low-pressure plasma is generated inside the tube that does not lead to soot generation, but rather allows a heterogeneously nucleated chemical reaction to occur at the inner surface of the tube, so that the glass is built up in molecular-scale layers. This is a true chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process. More layers are required than with soot, but the process can be controlled more precisely. Unfortunately, the process has not yet proved commercially economical. 

A thorough analysis of ship accidents shows that only a small percentage of accidents and marine casualties in approach channels and ports are due to channel design, but it is essential, with future commercial, economic and environmental pressures placed on port operators, that this percentage remains low. 

Founded in 1952, CCPIT promotes commercial, economic and technical exchange and cooperation between PR China and other countries. 

Natural gas analysis has considerable economic importance. In fact, commercial contracts increasingly specify not just volume but the calorific or heating value as well. Today the calorific value of a natural gas calculated from its composition obtained by chromatography is recognized as valid. There is therefore a large research effort devoted to increasing the precision of this analysis. 

Introduction and commercial application Safety and the environment have become important elements of all parts of the field life cycle, and involve all of the technical and support functions in an oil company. The Piper Alpha disaster in the North Sea in 1988 has resulted in a major change in the approach to management of safety of world-wide oil and gas exploration and production activities. Companies recognise that good safety and environmental management make economic sense and are essential to guaranteeing long term presence in the industry. 

When considering exploration economics, the possibility of spending funds with no future returns must be taken into account. A typical world-wide success rate for rank exploration activity is one commercial discovery for every ten wells drilled. Hence a probabilistic estimation of the reserves resulting from exploration activity must take into account the main risks and uncertainties in the volume of hydrocarbons in place, the recoverable hydrocarbons, and importantly the risk of finding no hydrocarbons at all. 

Introduction and Commercial Application Eventually every field development will reach the end of its economic lifetime. If options for extending the field life have been exhausted, then decommissioning will be necessary. Decommissioning is the process which the operator of an oil or natural gas installations will plan, gain approval and implement the removal, disposal or re-use of an installation when it is no longer needed for its current purpose. 

The acid chloride is available commercially, but it is more economical to prepare it from the acid as and when required. Furthermore, 3 5-dini-trobenzoyl chloride tends to undergo hydrolysis if kept for long periods, particularly if the stock bottle is frequently opened. The substance may, however, be stored under light petroleum. 

Although Pd is cheaper than Rh and Pt, it is still expensive. In Pd(0)- or Pd(ll)-catalyzed reactions, particularly in commercial processes, repeated use of Pd catalysts is required. When the products are low-boiling, they can be separated from the catalyst by distillation. The Wacker process for the production of acetaldehyde is an example. For less volatile products, there are several approaches to the economical uses of Pd catalysts. As one method, an alkyldi-phenylphosphine 9, in which the alkyl group is a polyethylene chain, is prepared as shown. The Pd complex of this phosphine has low solubility in some organic solvents such as toluene at room temperature, and is soluble at higher temperature[28]. Pd(0)-catalyzed reactions such as an allylation reaction of nucleophiles using this complex as a catalyst proceed smoothly at higher temperatures. After the reaction, the Pd complex precipitates and is recovered when the reaction mixture is cooled. 

Bromination of methane is exothermic but less exothermic than chlorination The value calculated from bond dissociation energies is AH° = -30 kJ Al though bromination of methane is energetically fa vorable economic considerations cause most of the methyl bromide prepared commercially to be made from methanol by reaction with hydrogen bromide... 

It was not until the twentieth century that furfural became important commercially. The Quaker Oats Company, in the process of looking for new and better uses for oat hulls found that acid hydrolysis resulted in the formation of furfural, and was able to develop an economical process for isolation and purification. In 1922 Quaker announced the availability of several tons per month. The first large-scale appHcation was as a solvent for the purification of wood rosin. Since then, a number of furfural plants have been built world-wide for the production of furfural and downstream products. Some plants produce as Httie as a few metric tons per year, the larger ones manufacture in excess of 20,000 metric tons. 

The derivatives are hydroxyethyl and hydroxypropyl cellulose. AH four derivatives find numerous appHcations and there are other reactants that can be added to ceUulose, including the mixed addition of reactants lea ding to adducts of commercial significance. In the commercial production of mixed ethers there are economic factors to consider that include the efficiency of adduct additions (ca 40%), waste product disposal, and the method of product recovery and drying on a commercial scale. The products produced by equation 2 require heat and produce NaCl, a corrosive by-product, with each mole of adduct added. These products are produced by a paste process and require corrosion-resistant production units. The oxirane additions (eq. 3) are exothermic, and with the explosive nature of the oxiranes, require a dispersion diluent in their synthesis (see Cellulose ethers). 

Cost. It is necessary to produce the feedstock from which the monomer is generated, viz, the dimer, at a cost which can be supported by the commercial appHcation, and yet allow it to be economically competitive with all other alternative ways to achieve the same end result. This factor often, but not always, seriously limits the amount of effort that can be put iato dimer synthesis and purification. 

Since 1960, the Hquid-phase oxidation of ethylene has been the process of choice for the manufacture of acetaldehyde. There is, however, stiU some commercial production by the partial oxidation of ethyl alcohol and hydration of acetylene. The economics of the various processes are strongly dependent on the prices of the feedstocks. Acetaldehyde is also formed as a coproduct in the high temperature oxidation of butane. A more recently developed rhodium catalyzed process produces acetaldehyde from synthesis gas as a coproduct with ethyl alcohol and acetic acid (83—94). 

Until World War 1 acetone was manufactured commercially by the dry distillation of calcium acetate from lime and pyroligneous acid (wood distillate) (9). During the war processes for acetic acid from acetylene and by fermentation supplanted the pyroligneous acid (10). In turn these methods were displaced by the process developed for the bacterial fermentation of carbohydrates (cornstarch and molasses) to acetone and alcohols (11). At one time Pubhcker Industries, Commercial Solvents, and National Distillers had combined biofermentation capacity of 22,700 metric tons of acetone per year. Biofermentation became noncompetitive around 1960 because of the economics of scale of the isopropyl alcohol dehydrogenation and cumene hydroperoxide processes. 

In the 1980s cost and availabiUty of acetylene have made it an unattractive raw material for acrylate manufacture as compared to propylene, which has been readily available at attractive cost (see Acetylene-DERIVED chemicals). As a consequence, essentially all commercial units based on acetylene, with the exception of BASF s plant at Ludwigshafen, have been shut down. AH new capacity recendy brought on stream or announced for constmction uses the propylene route. Rohm and Haas Co. has developed an alternative method based on aLkoxycarbonylation of ethylene, but has not commercialized it because of the more favorable economics of the propylene route. 

Although acrylonitrile manufacture from propylene and ammonia was first patented in 1949 (30), it was not until 1959, when Sohio developed a catalyst capable of producing acrylonitrile with high selectivity, that commercial manufacture from propylene became economically viable (1). Production improvements over the past 30 years have stemmed largely from development of several generations of increasingly more efficient catalysts. These catalysts are multicomponent mixed metal oxides mostly based on bismuth—molybdenum oxide. Other types of catalysts that have been used commercially are based on iron—antimony oxide, uranium—antimony oxide, and tellurium-molybdenum oxide. 

The propylene-based process developed by Sohio was able to displace all other commercial production technologies because of its substantial advantage in overall production costs, primarily due to lower raw material costs. Raw material costs less by-product credits account for about 60% of the total acrylonitrile production cost for a world-scale plant. The process has remained economically advantaged over other process technologies since the first commercial plant in 1960 because of the higher acrylonitrile yields resulting from the introduction of improved commercial catalysts. Reported per-pass conversions of propylene to acrylonitrile have increased from about 65% to over 80% (28,68—70). 

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